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1 The History and Sources of the International Law of the Sea1

Ⅰ.Introduction1

Ⅱ.Historical Development of the International Law of the Sea2

A.The Grotian View of the Oceans3

B.The Freedom of the Sea and Territorial Sea Claims4

C.1930 Hague Conference4

D.Truman Proclamation5

Ⅲ.Work of the International Law Commission6

Ⅳ.The First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea and the Geneva Conventions6

Ⅴ.The Second United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea9

Ⅵ.The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea10

A.Claims to New Maritime Zones in the 1960s10

B.The Regime of the Deep Seabed11

C.UNCLOS Ⅲ Conference Dynamics12

D.The United States Position on Common Heritage and the Deep Seabed14

Ⅶ.The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea14

A.Core Provisions15

B.Entry into Force18

C.1994 Implementing Agreement18

D.1995 Fish Stocks Agreement19

Ⅷ.Institutional Frameworks20

Ⅸ.Sources of the International Law of the Sea22

A.Customary International Law22

B.Treaties and Conventions22

C.Unilateral Declarations23

D.Subsidiary Sources of Law24

E.Soft Law24

Ⅹ.Challenges for the International Law of the Sea25

A.Climate Change25

B.Marine Environmental Security26

C.Creeping Jurisdiction27

Ⅺ.Review and Reform of the International Law of the Sea27

Ⅻ.Further Reading29

2 Coastal Waters30

Ⅰ.Introduction30

Ⅱ.History31

Ⅲ.Baselines33

A.The Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case33

B.International Law Commission34

i.International Law Commission Draft Articles35

C.UNCLOSI36

D.Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone37

E.Post-UNCLOS I State Practice39

F.LOSC40

Ⅳ.Key Issues in the Delimitation of Coastal Waters42

A.Low-water42

B.Straight Baselines43

C.Low-tide Elevation45

D.Juridical Bays46

E.Historic Bays47

F.Contemporary State Practice50

Ⅴ.Internal Waters52

A.Views of the ILC52

B.Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone52

C.LOSC53

D.State Practice54

i.Territorial Sovereign Rights and Internal Waters54

ii.Port Access55

iii.Jurisdiction over Foreign Ships in Port56

Ⅵ.Further Reading57

3 Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone58

Ⅰ.Introduction58

Ⅱ.Territorial Sea in Customary International Law59

Ⅲ.Codification of the Territorial Sea61

A.The Views of the International Associations61

B.International Law Commission62

C.UNCLOSI63

D.Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone64

E.UNCLOSII66

F.State Practice67

Ⅳ.UNCLOS Ⅲ and the LOSC69

Ⅴ.Contemporary Territorial Sea in State Practice71

A.Breadth of the Territorial Sea71

B.Sovereignty and Jurisdiction73

C.Innocent and Transit Passage76

Ⅵ.Contiguous Zone77

A.ILC77

B.UNCLOS Ⅰ and the Geneva Convention78

C.UNCLOS Ⅲ and the LOSC79

D.State Practice79

Ⅶ.Further Reading81

4 The Exclusive Economic Zone82

Ⅰ.Introduction82

Ⅱ.The Concept of the EEZ83

Ⅲ.Breadth of the EEZ and its Relationship with Other Maritime Zones85

Ⅳ.Coastal State Rights and Obligations in the EEZ87

A.Sovereign Rights88

i.Living Resources88

ii.Non-Living Resources89

B.Jurisdictional Rights90

i.Artificial Islands,Installations and Structures90

ii.Marine Scientific Research91

iii.Marine Environmental Protection92

Ⅴ.Rights and Duties of Other States in the EEZ92

A.Navigation and Overflight93

i.Environmental Security94

ii.Military Security95

B.Submarine Cables and Pipelines96

Ⅵ.Future Developments96

Ⅶ.Further Reading97

5 The Continental Shelf98

Ⅰ.Introduction98

Ⅱ.The Truman Proclamation100

Ⅲ.UNCLOS I and the Geneva Convention102

A.Work of the International Law Commission102

B.The Convention on the Continental Shelf104

C.North Sea Continental Shelf Cases106

Ⅳ.UNCLOS Ⅲ107

Ⅴ.LOSC109

A.Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf111

B.Rights and Duties of Coastal and Other States117

C.Relationship with the EEZ Regime118

Ⅵ.Further Reading119

6 The Deep Seabed120

Ⅰ.Introduction120

Ⅱ.The Deep Seabed:Environment and Resources121

Ⅲ.Early Debates:Sedentary Fisheries and the Deep Seabed125

Ⅳ.The Moratorium Resolution and Principles Resolution127

Ⅴ.UNCLOS Ⅲ129

A.Reciprocating States Regime132

Ⅵ.The LOSC and 1994 Agreement133

A.The Main Revisions in the 1994 Agreement134

Ⅶ.The International Seabed Authority and the Seabed Mining System136

A.The ISBA136

i.The Assembly137

ii.The Council138

iii.Recent Activities of the ISBA and the Mining Code138

B.Main Elements of the Deep Seabed Mining Regime141

Ⅷ.Further Reading144

7 High Seas145

Ⅰ.Introduction145

A.The High Seas as a Managed Common Area146

Ⅱ.Historical Development of the High Seas147

A.Pre-Grotian Freedoms of the High Seas147

B.Grotian Vision of the High Seas147

C.High Seas in Customary International Law148

i.Jurisdiction over Vessels on the High Seas149

Ⅲ.Codification of the High Seas Regime151

A.Pre-Geneva Codifications151

B.Work of the ILC152

C.UNCLOS Ⅰ152

D.UNCLOS Ⅲ153

Ⅳ.The LOSC and the High Seas154

A.Freedom of the High Seas155

i.Freedom of Navigation155

ii.Freedom of Overflight156

iii.Freedom to Lay Submarine Cables and Pipelines156

iv.Freedom to Construct Artificial Islands and other Installations156

v.Freedom of Fishing157

vi.Freedom of Scientific Research158

B.Shipping158

i.Nationality of Ships159

ii.Duties of the Flag State160

iii.Immunities160

iv.Collisions161

v.Assistance to Persons at Sea161

C.Prohibitions162

i.Piracy162

ii.Slavery164

iii.Drug Trafficking165

iv.Unauthorised Broadcasting165

D.Enforcement166

E.Conservation and Management of Living Resources167

F.Relationship with Other Maritime Zones168

Ⅴ.Further Reading169

8 Archipelagic States170

Ⅰ.Archipelagos and International Law170

Ⅱ.Early Codifications172

Ⅲ.UNCLOS I173

Ⅳ.The Indonesian and Philippines Claims175

A.Indonesia175

B.The Philippines177

Ⅴ.UNCLOS Ⅲ179

Ⅵ.The LOSC and Archipelagic States181

A.Archipelagic States181

B.Archipelagic Baselines183

C.The Legal Status of Archipelagic Waters185

D.Archipelagic State Practice186

i.Proclaimed Archipelagic States187

ii.Archipelagic State Rights over Archipelagic Waters188

Ⅶ.Further Reading189

9 Landlocked and Geographically Disadvantaged States190

Ⅰ.Introduction190

Ⅱ.Landlocked States and Access to the Sea193

A.Early Developments193

B.UNCLOS I194

C.Post-UNCLOS Ⅰ Developments195

D.The LOSC196

Ⅲ.Landlocked States and Rights of Navigation199

Ⅳ.Landlocked and Geographically Disadvantaged States and Marine Resources200

A.Living Resources of the EEZ201

B.Living Resources of the High Seas203

C.Mineral Resources of the Area203

D.Marine Scientific Research and Transfer of Marine Technology204

Ⅴ.Further Reading204

10 Navigational Rights and Freedoms205

Ⅰ.Freedom of the Seas and Navigational Rights and Freedoms205

A.Traditional Interests205

B.Contemporary Interests206

Ⅱ.Customary International Law Prior to UNCLOS I207

A.Early State Practice207

B.The Corfu Channel Case209

Ⅲ.UNCLOS Ⅰ and the Geneva Conventions210

A.The Work of the International Law Commission210

B.UNCLOS Ⅰ211

Ⅳ UNCLOS Ⅲ and the LOSC213

Ⅴ.Territorial Sea214

A.Coastal State Rights in the Territorial Sea214

B.The Right of Innocent Passage215

C.Coastal State Rights and Duties Regarding Innocent Passage218

i.Prevention of Passage218

ii.Regulation of Passage219

iii.Obligation not to Hamper Innocent Passage220

iv.Sea Lanes and Traffic Separation Schemes221

D.The Rights of Foreign Flagged Vessels221

E.Warships222

F.Nuclear Vessels and Vessels Carrying Hazardous Substances223

G.Vessels in Distress224

Ⅵ.High Seas224

Ⅶ.Exclusive Economic Zone227

Ⅷ.Further Reading229

11 International Straits and Archipelagic Navigation230

Ⅰ.Recognising Rights of Navigation through Straits230

A.The Corfu Channel Case231

B.The ILC and UNCLOS I232

Ⅱ.UNCLOS Ⅲ Deliberations and the LOSC234

A.The Straits Regime235

B.The Archipelagic Regime235

Ⅲ.International Straits236

A.Categories of Straits237

B.The Regime of Transit Passage239

i.The Act of Transit239

ii.Duties of Ships and Aircraft in Transit240

iii.Obligations of Strait States241

iv.Regulation of Transit Passage242

v.Enforcement of Strait State Laws and Regulations242

C.Navigation in Specific International Straits244

i.Turkish Straits244

ii.Strait of Gibraltar245

iii.Straits of Malacca and Singapore246

iv.Torres Strait247

Ⅳ Archipelagic Navigation248

A.Innocent Passage within Archipelagic Waters249

B.Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage250

i.Navigation in the 'Normal Mode'251

ii.Navigation within Archipelagic Sea Lanes251

iii.Designation of Archipelagic Sea Lanes252

iv.Obligations while Undertaking Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage253

v.Obligations of the Archipelagic State254

C.State Practice Designating Archipelagic Sea Lanes255

Ⅴ.Further Reading257

12 Military Uses of the Oceans258

Ⅰ.Introduction258

Ⅱ.Historical Overview259

Ⅲ.International Law and Naval Operations260

A.Law of Naval Warfare260

B.United Nations-Sanctioned Naval Operations262

Ⅳ.Codification of the Law of the Sea263

A.Work of the International Law Commission264

B.UNCLOS Ⅰ and the Geneva Conventions265

C.UNCLOS Ⅲ and the LOSC265

Ⅴ.Navigational Rights and Freedoms267

A.Innocent Passage by Warships268

B.Transit Passage by Warships271

C.Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage by Warships274

D.EEZ Navigation by Warships275

i.Military Survey Activities275

Ⅵ.Naval Operations at Sea276

A.United Nations Sanctioned Interdictions276

B.Proliferation Security Initiative278

C.Weapons Testing and Military Manoeuvres279

D.Demilitarised and Nuclear Free Zones281

Ⅶ.Overflight by Military Aircraft282

Ⅷ.Further Reading284

13 Marine Resource Management285

Ⅰ.Introduction285

Ⅱ.Non-Living Marine Resources287

A.Resource Potential287

B.Internal Waters and Territorial Sea288

C.Continental Shelf and Exclusive Economic Zone288

D.The High Seas and Deep Seabed289

E.Joint Development290

Ⅲ.Living Resources292

A.Fisheries and the 'Tragedy of the Commons'292

B.Pre LOSC Developments292

C.1958 Geneva Conventions295

D.LOSC Regime297

i.Internal Waters,the Territorial Sea and Archipelagic Waters298

ii.Exclusive Economic Zone298

iii.Shared Stocks303

iv.Continental Shelf303

v.The High Seas303

vi.Deep Seabed306

E.Species-Specific Rules307

i.Highly Migratory Species307

ii.Marine Mammals308

iii.Anadromous Species310

iv.Catadromous Species311

F.Post-LOSC Developments311

i.High Seas Fishing312

ii.Fish Stocks Agreement315

Ⅳ.Further Reading319

14 Marine Scientific Research320

Ⅰ.Introduction320

Ⅱ.Development of the Regime for Marine Scientific Research321

A.Early History of Marine Scientific Research321

B.Marine Scientific Research and North-South Tensions in the Post-WW Ⅱ Period322

C.The Pre-LOSC Regime for Marine Scientific Research323

Ⅲ.The LOSC Regime for Marine Scientific Research324

A.General Provisions324

B.Internal Waters,Archipelagic Waters and the Territorial Sea327

C.Continental Shelf and Exclusive Economic Zone327

i.Hydrographic Surveying330

ii.Scientific Research Installations and Equipment331

D.High Seas333

E.Deep Seabed333

Ⅳ.Marine Scientific Research under Other Regimes334

Ⅴ.Coastal State Legislation concerning Marine Scientific Research335

Ⅵ.Future Developments336

Ⅶ.Further Reading337

15 Marine Environmental Protection338

Ⅰ.Introduction338

Ⅱ.Sources and Type of Marine Pollution339

Ⅲ.The Legal Framework:LOSC and Regional Treaties342

A.LOSC342

B.Regional Treaties344

Ⅳ.Operational Vessel-Source Pollution347

A.Operational and Accidental Vessel Pollution Distinguished347

B.LOSC and the IMO347

C.International Standards348

D.The MARPOL Jurisdictional Framework353

i.Flag States353

ii.Port States353

E.The LOSC Jurisdictional Framework355

i.Flag States355

ii.Port States355

iii.Coastal States356

iv.Enforcement Jurisdiction358

Ⅴ.Accidental Vessel-Source Pollution359

A.Safety of Shipping359

i.SOLAS359

ii.Qualifications and Working Conditions for Seafarers361

iii.Preventing Collisions at Sea362

Ⅵ.Pollution Emergencies362

A.Responding to Pollution Emergencies363

B.Coastal State Rights of Intervention364

C.The Role of Salvors365

Ⅶ.Liability for Vessel-Source Pollution365

A.State Responsibility365

B.Civil Liability366

i.Liability for Oil Pollution Damage366

ii.1992 Civil Liability Convention367

iii.The 1992 Fund Convention369

iv.Liability for Other Pollution Damage370

Ⅷ.Seabed Pollution371

A.Territorial Sea,EEZ and Continental Shelf371

Ⅸ.Dumping at Sea373

A.1972 London Convention374

B.1996 Protocol374

C.Jurisdiction and Enforcement376

D.Ship Scrapping and Recycling377

E.Regional Agreements378

Ⅹ.Land-Based and Atmospheric Pollution378

A.1995 Global Programme of Action380

Ⅺ.Further Reading382

16 Delimitation of Maritime Boundaries383

Ⅰ.Introduction383

A.Grisbadarna Arbitration384

B.Influence of Boggs385

Ⅱ.Work of the International Law Commission386

Ⅲ.Codification of the Law387

A.Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone387

B.Convention on the Continental Shelf388

Ⅳ Early Cases389

A.North Sea Continental Shelf Cases389

B.Anglo-French Arbitration390

Ⅴ.LOSC391

Ⅵ.The ICJ and Maritime Boundary Delimitation393

Ⅶ.Principles of Maritime Boundary Delimitation397

A.Delimitation Methodology397

i.Territorial Sea398

ii.EEZ/Continental Shelf/Single Maritime Boundary398

B.Territorial Sea Delimitations399

C.Equitable Solution/Equitable Result401

D.Equidistance and Median Lines401

E.Relevant and Special Circumstances402

i.Special Circumstances403

ii.Relevant Circumstances404

iii.Islands404

iv.Fishing406

v.Oil Concessions407

F.Single Maritime Boundaries407

Ⅷ.Maritime Boundary Delimitation by Agreement408

A.Settled Maritime Boundaries408

B.Joint Development Zones409

Ⅸ.Further Reading411

17 Maritime Regulation and Enforcement412

Ⅰ.Introduction412

Ⅱ.International Law Regarding Enforcement Powers at Sea414

A.Hot Pursuit415

i.Case Law416

ii.State Practice416

iii.Multilateral Hot Pursuit417

B.Use of Force418

i.LOSC and Use of Force419

ii.General Principles Regarding the Use of Force at Sea During Peacetime420

Ⅲ.Enforcement Operations within Particular Maritime Zones422

A.Internal Waters423

B.Territorial Sea424

i.Criminal Jurisdiction425

ii.Civil Jurisdiction425

iii.Territorial Sea of an International Strait425

C.Archipelagic Waters426

D.Contiguous Zone427

E.EEZ428

i.Matters Subject to EEZ Sovereign Rights429

ii.Matters Subject to EEZ Jurisdiction430

F.Continental Shelf431

G.High Seas431

Ⅳ.Specialist Regimes Relating to Maritime Regulation and Enforcement432

A.Piracy432

B.Maritime Terrorism and Related Unlawful Acts434

C.Fisheries435

D.Transnational Crime436

Ⅴ.Further Reading438

18 Dispute Settlement in the Law of the Sea439

Ⅰ.Introduction439

Ⅱ.Dispute Settlement in International Law:General Mechanisms440

Ⅲ.Dispute Settlement in the Law of the Sea:Pre-LOSC Developments442

A.ILC Draft Articles on the Law of the Sea443

B.UNCLOS Ⅰ444

C.UNCLOS Ⅲ445

Ⅳ.Dispute Settlement under the LOSC445

A.Jurisdictional Conditions445

B.Compulsory Dispute Settlement448

i.Applicable Law452

ii.Provisional Measures452

iii.Prompt Release453

C.Jurisdictional Limitations and Exceptions454

D.ITLOS456

Ⅴ.Further Reading460

19 Oceans Governance461

Ⅰ.Introduction461

Ⅱ.The Concept of Oceans Governance462

A.Government and Governance Distinguished462

B.The Ecosystem Approach and Area-Based Management462

C.Area-Based Tools for Marine Management465

D.Transparent and Participatory Decision-Making Processes467

E.Scientific and Other Cross-Disciplinary Influences468

F.Normative Influences on Oceans Governance469

Ⅲ.The Global Legal Framework for Oceans Governance470

Ⅳ.The Policy Framework for Oceans Governance473

Ⅴ.Norms and Principles of Oceans Governance474

Ⅵ.Institutions for Oceans Governance478

Ⅶ.Regional,Sub-regional and National Oceans Governance482

A.UNEP Regional Seas Programme482

B.European Union483

C.Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation484

Ⅷ.Further Reading485

Index487