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PART I THE NATURE AND FUNCTION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW1

1 The Development of International Law7

The Middle Ages7

The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries8

The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries9

Early Writers on International Law11

The Nineteenth Century12

2 Nature and Foundation of International Law15

The Need for Law15

Law and Politics16

Is International Law “Real” Law？17

The Foundation of International Law18

States and the Foundation of International Law20

Why Do States Obey International Law？21

3 International and Other Law23

Types of Law23

The Monist and Dualist Views24

State Practice Regarding Different Types of Law25

The Practice of International Tribunals26

Relationship between Municipal Laws of Different States27

4 The Creation of International Law： Methods and Principles33

The Origin33

Treaties36

Custom38

General Principles of Law41

Equity42

5 The Creation of International Law： Men and Institutions47

States47

International Organizations48

Legal Agencies51

Individuals52

Courts53

References and Readings for Part 155

Sociology of Law55

New States55

Changing International Society56

Politics， Power， and Law57

Theories of Law58

Binding Force of Law58

Relations between International and Municipal Law58

Conflict between International and Municipal Law59

Sources of International Law： General59

Sources of International Law： Treaties59

Sources of International Law： Custom60

Sources of International Law： General Principles60

Sources of International Law： Equity60

Sources of International Law： International Organizations61

Sources of International Law： Individuals62

Sources of International Law： Courts and Tribunals62

PART 2 INTERNATIONAL LEGAL CAPACITY63

6 Subjects of International Law65

States65

Recognition67

Public International Organizations69

Insurgents and Liberation Movements71

Corporations73

Multinational Corporations74

Individuals77

References and Readings for Part 281

States81

Small States82

Recognition82

International Organizations82

Insurgents and Liberation Movements83

Corporations83

Individuals84

PART 3 INHERENT LEGAL QUALITIES OF SUBJECTS85

7 The Status of States87

Sovereignty87

Equality89

Nonintervention91

Sovereign Immunity of States95

The Trend Regarding Sovereignty97

8 The Organs of Subjects and Their Protection101

The Problem of Juridic Persons101

Organs of States102

Organs of International Organizations104

Types of Protection105

The Protected Entities106

References and Readings for Part 3111

Sovereignty111

Equality111

Nonintervention112

Act of State113

Organs of States113

Organs of International Organizations113

PART 4 THE JURISDICTION OF STATES115

9 Temporal Jurisdiction119

The Birth of States119

The Identity or Continuity of States120

The Death of States122

The Principle of Succession of States123

Types of Succession of States125

10 Extent of Spatial Jurisdiction129

Sovereignty and Spatial Jurisdiction129

The Content of Spatial Jurisdiction131

The Frontiers of Territorial Jurisdiction135

The Frontiers of Air and Outer Space Jurisdiction136

Jurisdiction over Territorial Waters137

Jurisdiction in Special Zones141

The Jurisdictional Frontiers of the Continental Shelf142

The Jurisdictional Frontiers in the High Seas143

Jurisdiction over Polar Regions144

11 Acquisition and Loss of Spatial Sovereignty and Jurisdiction145

Original Sovereignty and Jurisdiction145

Acquisition of Territory through Natural Events145

Occupation146

Prescription147

Cession147

Subjugation or Conquest147

Treaty148

Loss of Sovereignty and Jurisdiction148

12 Acquisition and Loss of Personal Jurisdiction149

The Meaning of Personal Jurisdiction149

Acquisition of Personal Jurisdiction150

Loss of Personal Jurisdiction151

Personal Jurisdiction over Juridic Persons152

13 Material Jurisdiction of States153

Meaning153

The Limit of Material Jurisdiction154

The Protective Principle156

Universal Material Jurisdiction157

References and Readings for Part 4161

Jurisdiction and Sovereignty161

Birth and Death of States161

Succession162

Spatial Jurisdiction： General162

Protection of Environment162

Land Frontiers164

Frontiers in Airspace164

Territorial Waters and Law of the Sea165

Special Zones166

Continental Shelf166

High Seas166

Arctic Regions167

Acquisition and Loss of Spatial Jurisdiction168

Acquisition and Loss of Personal Jurisdiction168

Material Jurisdiction168

Terrorism169

PART 5 PERSONS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW171

14 The Law of Aliens175

Admission175

The Standard of Treatment and Its Enforcement177

Aliens as Subjects of Municipal Law182

The Protection of an Alien’s Private Rights183

The Special Case of Concessions186

The Special Case of Nationalization187

The Protection of an Alien’s Personal Rights188

Extradition and Asylum189

15 The International Law of Nationals193

The National， the Forgotten Man193

Beginnings of International Protection193

Human Rights194

Self-Determination of Peoples197

References and Readings for Part 5203

Individuals： General203

Alien Natural and Juridic Persons： Diplomatic Protection203

Denial of Justice204

Aliens： Private Rights and Expropriation204

Aliens： Government Contracts205

Aliens： Nationalization of Property205

Aliens： Personal Rights205

Aliens： Extradition and Asylum205

Nationals and Human Rights206

Self-Determination and Neocolonialism207

PART 6 INTERNATIONAL ACTIONS WITH LEGAL CONSEQUENCES209

16 Unilateral Transactions213

Nature of Transactions213

Recognition214

Notification214

Declarations214

Promises214

Protest215

Renunciation215

Interdependent Unilateral Transactions216

17 Multilateral Actions （Treaties）217

Value of Treaties217

The Nature of Treaties218

Capacity and Authority to Conclude Treaties219

Consent221

Reservations， Amendments， Modifications222

Object and Purpose224

Entry into Force224

Interpretation225

Termination and Suspension of Treaties228

Consequences of Invalidity， Termination， Suspension230

18 Responsibility of Subjects233

The Principle233

Controversial Aspects of the Principle234

The Forms of Injury238

The Subjects and Objects of Responsibility238

Responsibility for the Subject’s Organs240

The Behavior Creating Responsibility241

Responsibility for Private Persons242

Conditions Excluding Responsibility243

Amends244

Procedure245

Expanding and Contracting Claims248

Responsibility of International Organizations248

References and Readings for Part 6251

General Principles251

Unilateral Actions251

Nature of Treaties252

Capacity and Authority To Conclude Treaties252

Consent to Treaties253

Reservations to Treaties253

Ius Cogens and Treaty Objects253

Entry into Force of Treaties254

Interpretation of Treaties254

Suspension and Termination of Treaties254

State Responsibility： General255

Responsibility for Hazardous Action255

Criminal Liability of States255

Subjects and Objects of State Liability256

State Responsibility for Treatment of Aliens256

Responsibility of International Organizations256

Special Responsibilities of States256

PART 7 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION259

19 Political Cooperation265

Cooperation as a Legal Obligation265

Differing Views on the Law266

20 Economic Cooperation271

The Roots271

Existing Law272

The Future of Economic Cooperative Law273

References and Readings for Part 7279

Political Cooperation279

Economic Cooperation279

Economic Development280

Economic Discrimination281

PART 8 THE PACIFIC SETTLEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL DISPUTES283

21 Applicability of Methods for Pacific Settlement285

Political versus Legal Methods285

What Are International Disputes？286

The Choice of Methods288

22 Settlement Not Involving Decisions by Third Parties291

Negotiation291

Good Offices292

Mediation293

Enquiry294

Conciliation295

23 Settlement Involving Decisions by Third Parties297

Arbitration297

Adjudication298

References and Readings for Part 8303

Legal Character of Disputes303

Settlement Not Involving Third-Party Decisions303

Settlement Involving Third-Party Decisions304

PART 9 THE USE OF FORCE305

24 Conditions for the Legal Use of Force311

Reprisal311

Self-Defense314

Self-Preservation317

War319

25 Regulation of the Application of Force325

General Principles325

Weapons and Methods327

Use of Force Short of War328

26 The Position of Third States Uninvolved in the Use of Force329

In Peacetime329

In Wartime330

References and Readings for Part 9335

Legality335

Reprisal335

Self-Defense336

Aggression336

War， Civil War， Liberation War336

Humanizing War337

New Weapons and Technology338

Neutrality338

PART 10 THE DYNAMIC CHARACTER OF INTERNATIONAL LAW341

Appendix A Digest of Cases347

The Paquete Habana； The Lola347

The S.S.“Lotus348

The Island of Palmas Case350

Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations351

The Corfu Channel Case353

Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide355

North Sea Continental Shelf Cases357

Nuclear Test Case361

Appendix B Cases Cited363

Selected Bibliography369

Index373