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Contents At a Glance1

1 Introduction1

2 Some Fundamentals5

3 Compiling and RunningYour First Program11

4 Variables, Data Types, and Arithmetic Expressions21

5 Program Looping43

6 Making Decisions65

7 Working with Arrays95

8 Working with Functions119

9 Working with Structures165

10 Character Strings195

11 Pointers235

12 Operations on Bits279

13 The Preprocessor299

14 More on Data Types321

15 Working with Larger Programs333

16 Input and Output Operations in C347

17 Miscellaneous and Advanced Features373

18 Debugging Programs389

19 Object-Oriented Programming411

A C Language Summary425

B The Standard C Library467

C Compiling Programs with gcc493

D Common Programming Mistakes497

E Resources501

Index505

Table of Contents1

1 Introduction1

2 Some Fundamentals5

Programming5

Higher-Level Languages6

Operating Systems6

Compiling Programs7

Integrated Development Environments10

Language Interpreters10

3 Compiling and Running Your First Program11

CompilingYour Program11

RunningYour Program12

UnderstandingYour First Program13

Displaying the Values of Variables15

Comments17

Exercises19

4 Variables, Data Types, and ArithmeticExpressions21

Working with Variables21

Understanding Data Types and Constants23

The Basic Integer Type int23

The Floating NumberType float24

The Extended Precision Type double25

The Single Character Type char25

The Boolean Data Type_Bool26

Type Specifiers: long, long long, short, unsigned, and signed28

Working with Arithmetic Expressions30

Integer Arithmetic and the Unary Minus Operator33

The Modulus Operator35

Integer and Floating-Point Conversions36

Combining Operations with Assignment: The Assignment Operators38

Types_Complex and_Imaginary39

Exercises40

5 Program Looping43

The for Statement44

Relational Operators46

Aligning Output50

Program Input51

Nested for Loops53

for Loop Variants54

The while Statement56

The do Statement60

The break Statement62

The continue Statement62

Exercises63

6 Making Decisions65

The if Statement65

The if-else Construct69

Compound Relational Tests72

Nested if Statements75

The else if Construct76

The switch Statement84

Boolean Variables87

The Conditional Operator91

Exercises93

7 Working with Arrays95

Defining an Array96

Using Array Elements as Counters100

Generating Fibonacci Numbers103

Using an Array to Generate Prime Numbers104

Initializing Arrays106

Character Arrays108

Base Conversion Using Arrays109

The const Qualifier111

Multidimensional Arrays113

Variable-Length Arrays115

Exercises117

8 Working with Functions119

Defining a Function119

Arguments and LocalVariables122

Function Prototype Declaration124

Automatic LocalVariables124

Returning Function Results126

Functions Calling Functions Calling...131

Declaring Return Types and Argument Types134

Checking Function Arguments135

Top-Down Programming137

Functions and Arrays137

Assignment Operators142

Sorting Arrays143

Multidimensional Arrays146

GlobalVariables152

Automatic and Static Variables156

Recursive Functions159

Exercises162

9 Working with Structures165

A Structure for Storing the Date166

Using Structures in Expressions168

Functions and Structures171

A Structure for Storing theTime177

Initializing Structures180

Compound Literals181

Arrays of Structures182

Structures Containing Structures185

Structures Containing Arrays187

Structure Variants190

Exercises191

10 Character Strings195

Arrays of Characters196

Variable-Length Character Strings198

Initializing and Displaying Character Strings201

TestingTwo Character Strings for Equality204

Inputting Character Strings206

Single-Character Input208

The Null String213

Escape Characters216

More on Constant Strings218

Character Strings, Structures, and Arrays219

A Better Search Method222

Character Operations227

Exercises230

11 Pointers235

Defining a PointerVariable235

Using Pointers in Expressions239

Working with Pointers and Structures240

Structures Containing Pointers243

Linked Lists244

The Keyword const and Pointers253

Pointers and Functions254

Pointers and Arrays259

A Slight Digression About Program Optimization263

Is It an Array or Is It a Pointer?264

Pointers to Character Strings266

Constant Character Strings and Pointers267

The Increment and Decrement Operators Revisited268

Operations on Pointers272

Pointers to Functions273

Pointers and Memory Addresses274

Exercises276

12 Operations on Bits279

Bit Operators280

The Bitwise AND Operator281

The Bitwise Inclusive-OR Operator283

The Bitwise Exclusive-OR Operator284

The Ones Complement Operator285

The Left Shift Operator287

The Right Shift Operator287

A Shift Function288

Rotating Bits290

Bit Fields292

Exercises297

13 The Preprocessor299

The #define Statement299

Program Extendability303

Program Portability305

More Advanced Types of Definitions306

The # Operator312

The ## Operator313

The #include Statement313

System Include Files316

Conditional Compilation316

The #ifdef, #endif, #else, and #ifndef Statements316

The #if and #elif Preprocessor Statements318

The #undef Statement319

Exercises320

14 More on Data Types321

Enumerated Data Types321

The typedef Statement325

Data Type Conversions327

Sign Extension329

Argument Conversion329

Exercises330

15 Working with Larger Programs333

DividingYour Program into Multiple Files333

Compiling Multiple Source Files from the Command Line334

Communication Between Modules336

External Variables336

Static Versus Extern Variables and Functions339

Using Header Files Effectively341

Other Utilities for Working with Larger Programs342

The make Utility343

The cvs Utility344

Unix Utilities: ar, grep, sed, and so on345

16 Input and Output Operations in C347

Character I/O: getchar and putchar348

Formatted I/O: printf and scanf348

The printf Function348

The scanf Function355

Input and Output Operations with Files359

Redirecting I/O to a File359

End of File361

Special Functions for Working with Files363

The fopen Function363

The getc and putc Functions365

The fclose Function365

The feof Function367

The fprintf and fscanf Functions368

The fgets and fputs Functions368

stdin, stdout, and stderr369

The exit Function370

Renaming and Removing Files371

Exercises371

17 Miscellaneous and Advanced Features373

Miscellaneous Language Statements373

The goto Statement373

The null Statement374

Working with Unions375

The Comma Operator378

Type Qualifiers378

The register Qualifier378

The volatile Qualifier379

The restrict Qualifier379

Command-Line Arguments380

Dynamic Memory Allocation383

The calloc and malloc Functions384

The sizeof Operator385

The free Function387

18 Debugging Programs389

Debugging with the Preprocessor389

Debugging Programs with gdb395

Working with Variables398

Source File Display399

Controlling Program Execution400

Getting a Stack Trace405

Calling Functions and Setting Arrays and Structures405

Getting Help with gdb Commands406

Odds and Ends408

19 Object-Oriented Programming411

What Is an Object Anyway?411

Instances and Methods412

Writing a C Program toWork with Fractions413

Defining an Objective-C Class to Work with Fractions414

Defining a C++ Class toWork with Fractions419

Defining a C# Class to Work with Fractions422

A C Language Summary425

1.0 Digraphs and Identifiers425

1.1 Digraph Characters425

1.2 Identifiers425

2.0 Comments426

3.0 Constants427

3.1 Integer Constants427

3.2 Floating-Point Constants427

3.3 Character Constants428

3.4 Character String Constants429

3.5 Enumeration Constants430

4.0 Data Types and Declarations430

4.1 Declarations430

4.2 Basic Data Types430

4.3 Derived DataTypes432

4.4 Enumerated Data Types438

4.5 The typedef Statement438

4.6 Type Modifiers const, volatile, and restrict439

5.0 Expressions439

5. 1 Summary of C Operators440

5.2 Constant Expressions442

5.3 Arithmetic Operators443

5.4 Logical Operators444

5.5 Relational Operators444

5.6 Bitwise Operators445

5.7 Increment and Decrement Operators445

5.8 Assignment Operators446

5.9 Conditional Operators446

5.10 Type Cast Operator446

5.11 sizeof Operator447

5.12 Comma Operator447

5.13 Basic Operations with Arrays447

5.14 Basic Operations with Structures448

5.15 Basic Operations with Pointers448

5.16 Compound Literals450

5.17 Conversion of Basic Data Types451

6.0 Storage Classes and Scope452

6.1 Functions452

6.2 Variables452

7.0 Functions454

7.1 Function Definition454

7.2 Function Call455

7.3 Function Pointers456

8.0 Statements456

8.1 Compound Statements456

8.2 The break Statement456

8.3 The continue Statement457

8.4 The do Statement457

8.5 The for Statement457

8.6The goto Statement458

8.7 The if Statement458

8.8 The null Statement458

8.9 The return Statement459

8.10The switch Statement459

8.11 The while Statement460

9.0 The Preprocessor460

9.1 Trigraph Sequences460

9.2 Preprocessor Directives461

9.3 Predefined Identifiers466

B The Standard C Library467

Standard Header Files467

<stddef. h>467

<limits.h>468

<stdbool. h>469

<float.h>469

<stdint .h>469

String Functions470

Memory Functions472

Character Functions473

I/O Functions473

In-Memory Format Conversion Functions478

String-to-Number Conversion479

Dynamic Memory Allocation Functions481

Math Functions482

Complex Arithmetic488

General Utility Functions490

C Compiling Programs with gcc493

General Command Format493

Command-Line Options494

D Common Programming Mistakes497

E Resources501

Answers to Exercises, Errata, etc501

The C Programming Language501

Books501

Web Sites502

Newsgroups502

C Compilers and Integrated Development Environments502

gcc502

MinGW502

CygWin502

Visual Studio503

CodeWarrior503

Kylix503

Miscellaneous503

Object-Oriented Programming503

The C+++ Language503

The C# Language503

The Objective-C Language503

Development Tools504

Index505