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1 Introduction to Optical Networks1

1.1 Telecommunications Networks2

1.2 First-Generation Optical Networks3

1.3 Multiplexing Techniques5

1.4 Second-Generation Optical Networks7

1.4.1 Services7

1.4.2 Transparency10

1.4.3 Competing Technologies11

1.4.4 WDM Architectures11

1.4.5 The Optical Layer13

1.4.6 OTDM Architectures14

1.5 System and Network Evolution15

Summary19

Further Reading19

References20

Ⅰ Technology23

2 Propagation of Signals in Optical Fiber25

2.1 Light Propagation in Optical Fiber26

2.1.1 Geometrical Optics Approach26

2.1.2 Wave Theory Approach31

2.2 Loss and Bandwidth41

2.3 Chromatic Dispersion43

2.3.1 Chirped Gaussian Pulses46

2.3.2 System Limitations51

2.3.3 Controlling the Dispersion Profile55

2.4 Nonlinear Effects56

2.4.1 Self-Phase Modulation59

2.4.2 Cross-Phase Modulation62

2.4.3 Nonlinear Effects on Pulse Propagation64

2.4.4 SPM-Induced Chirp for Gaussian Pulses67

2.4.5 Four-Wave Mixing70

2.5 Solitons73

2.6 Soliton Pulse Propagation75

Summary76

Further Reading77

Problems78

References80

3 Components83

3.1 Couplers83

3.1.1 Principle of Operation84

3.1.2 Conservation of Energy85

3.2 Isolators and Circulators87

3.2.1 Principle of Operation87

3.3 Multiplexers and Filters90

3.3.1 Gratings93

3.3.2 Bragg Gratings97

3.3.3 Fiber Gratings99

3.3.4 Fabry-Perot Filters102

3.3.5 Multilayer Dielectric Thin-Film Filters106

3.3.6 Mach-Zehnder Interferometers108

3.3.7 Arrayed Waveguide Grating112

3.3.8 Acousto-Optic Tunable Filter115

3.4 Optical Amplifiers119

3.4.1 Stimulated Emission120

3.4.2 Spontaneous Emission121

3.4.3 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers122

3.4.4 Praseodymium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers126

3.4.5 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers126

3.4.6 Crosstalk in SOAs130

3.5 Transmitters131

3.5.1 Lasers131

3.5.2 Light-Emitting Diodes141

3.6 Detectors144

3.6.1 Photodetectors145

3.6.2 Front-End Amplifiers150

3.7 Switches152

3.7.1 Mechanical Switches154

3.7.2 Electro-Optic Switches155

3.7.3 Thermo-Optic Switches155

3.7.4 Semiconductor Optical Amplifier Switches156

3.7.5 Large Switches156

3.8 Wavelength Converters160

3.8.1 Optoelectronic Approach162

3.8.2 Optical Gating162

3.8.3 Cross-Gain Modulation163

3.8.4 Cross-Phase Modulation163

3.8.5 Wave Mixing165

Summary166

Further Reading166

Problems167

References172

4 Modulation and Demodulation177

4.1 Modulation177

4.1.1 Signal Formats178

4.2 Demodulation180

4.2.1 An Ideal Receiver180

4.2.2 A Practical Direction Detection Receiver181

4.2.3 Front-End Amplifier Noise183

4.2.4 APD Noise183

4.2.5 Optical Preamplifiers184

4.2.6 Bit Error Rates186

4.2.7 Subcarrier Modulation and Multiplexing191

4.2.8 Coherent Detection192

Summary195

Further Reading195

Problems196

References200

5 Transmission System Engineering203

5.1 System Model203

5.2 Power Penalty204

5.3 Transmitter207

5.4 Receiver208

5.5 Optical Amplifiers209

5.5.1 Gain Saturation210

5.5.2 Gain Equalization210

5.5.3 Amplifier Cascades213

5.5.4 Power Transients and Automatic Gain Control214

5.5.5 Optical Supervisory Channel216

5.6 Crosstalk217

5.6.1 Intrachannel Crosstalk218

5.6.2 Interchannel Crosstalk221

5.6.3 Crosstalk in Networks222

5.6.4 Bidirectional Systems222

5.6.5 Crosstalk Reduction224

5.6.6 Cascaded Filters225

5.7 Dispersion227

5.7.1 Chromatic Dispersion Penalty228

5.7.2 Single-Mode Fiber Types229

5.7.3 Dispersion Compensation230

5.7.4 Polarization-Mode Dispersion （PMD）232

5.8 Fiber Nonlinearities234

5.8.1 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering238

5.8.2 Stimulated Raman Scattering240

5.8.3 Four-Wave Mixing243

5.8.4 Self-/Cross-Phase Modulation247

5.8.5 Dispersion Management247

5.9 Wavelength Stabilization248

5.9.1 Dynamic Range Issues in Networks249

5.10 Overall Design Considerations250

5.10.1 Fiber Type250

5.10.2 Transmit Power and Amplifier Spacing250

5.10.3 Interchannel Spacing and Number of Wavelengths250

5.10.4 All-Optical Networks251

5.10.5 Wavelength Planning252

5.10.6 Transparency254

Summary254

Further Reading254

Problems255

References259

Ⅱ Networks263

6 First-Generation Optical Networks265

6.1 SONET/SDH265

6.1.1 Multiplexing267

6.1.2 Elements of a SONET/SDH Infrastructure269

6.1.3 SONET/SDH Physical Layer272

6.2 Computer Interconnects273

6.2.1 ESCON273

6.2.2 Fiber Channel275

6.2.3 HIPPI275

6.3 Metropolitan-Area Networks275

6.3.1 FDDI275

6.3.2 ATM276

6.3.3 IP277

6.4 Layered Architecture278

6.4.1 SONET/SDH Layers283

6.4.2 Second-Generation Optical Network Layers284

Summary286

Further Reading287

Problems287

References288

7 Broadcast and Select Networks291

7.1 Topologies for Broadcast Networks291

7.1.1 Interconnected Stars295

7.2 Media-Access Control （MAC） Protocols296

7.2.1 Synchronization298

7.2.2 Slotted Aloha/Slotted Aloha300

7.2.3 DT WDMA307

7.2.4 Scheduling Protocols310

7.2.5 Scheduling Deterministic Traffic313

7.2.6 Scalability and Traffic Classes314

7.3 Testbeds315

7.3.1 Lambdanet316

7.3.2 NTT’s Testbed316

7.3.3 Rainbow316

7.3.4 STARNET318

7.3.5 BBC Television Studio Testbed319

7.3.6 Lightning320

7.3.7 Supercomputer Supernet Testbed322

Summary322

Further Reading323

Problems323

References326

8 Wavelength Routing Networks329

8.1 The Optical Layer333

8.2 Node Designs336

8.2.1 Degree of Wavelength Conversion337

8.2.2 Multiple Fiber Networks339

8.2.3 Degree of Transparency340

8.2.4 Realizations341

8.3 Network Design and Operation345

8.3.1 Traffic Models and Performance Criteria345

8.3.2 Network Types： Static or Reconfigurable350

8.4 Optical Layer Cost Tradeoffs359

8.5 Routing and Wavelength Assignment365

8.5.1 Relationship to Graph Coloring368

8.5.2 Offline RWA： Maximum Load Model370

8.5.3 Online RWA in Rings： Maximum Load Model374

8.5.4 Online RWA： Statistical Model376

8.6 Architectural Variations384

Summary388

Further Reading389

Problems389

References393

9 Virtual Topology Design399

9.1 The Virtual Topology Design Problem401

9.2 Combined SONET/WDM Network Design405

9.3 An Integer Linear Programming Formulation406

9.4 Regular Virtual Topologies411

9.4.1 Shufflenets414

9.5 Implementation in Broadcast and Select Networks415

Summary418

Further Reading418

Problems418

References420

10 Control and Management423

10.1 Network Management Functions423

10.2 Configuration Management426

10.2.1 Equipment Management427

10.2.2 Connection Management428

10.3 Performance Management428

10.4 Fault Management430

10.4.1 Protection Concepts430

10.4.2 Ring Networks434

10.4.3 Mesh Networks442

10.4.4 Handling Node Failures444

10.4.5 Interworking Between Layers446

10.5 Optical Safety451

10.5.1 Open Fiber Control Protocol452

10.5.2 Systems with Optical Amplifiers454

10.6 Service Interface455

10.6.1 Data Communication Interface455

10.6.2 Control and Management Interface456

10.6.3 WDM Multivendor Interoperability458

Summary458

Further Reading459

Problems459

References461

11 Wavelength Routing Testbeds463

11.1 Africa ONE/Sea Me We-3465

11.2AON467

11.3 NTT Ring469

11.4 MWTN471

11.5 ONTC472

11.6 Alcatel’s WDM Ring474

11.7 MONET476

Summary477

Further Reading478

Problems478

References478

12 Access Networks481

12.1 Network Architecture Overview482

12.2 Today’s Access Networks484

12.3 Future Access Networks486

12.3.1 HFC487

12.3.2 FTTC488

12.4 Optical Access Network Architectures489

Summary497

Further Reading497

Problems498

References498

13 Deployment Considerations501

13.1 Upgrading Transmission Capacity501

13.1.1 The SDM Approach502

13.1.2 The TDM Approach502

13.1.3 The WDM Approach503

13.1.4 Trading SONET Against WDM507

13.2 Application Areas507

13.2.1 Interexchange Networks507

13.2.2 Undersea Networks508

13.2.3 Local-Exchange Networks508

13.2.4 Enterprise Links509

13.3 Equipment Design Requirements510

Summary511

Further Reading511

Problems511

References512

14 Photonic Packet Switching515

14.1OTDM516

14.2 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing518

14.2.1 Bit Interleaving519

14.2.2 Packet Interleaving521

14.2.3 Optical AND Gates523

14.3 Synchronization528

14.3.1 Tunable Delays529

14.3.2 Optical Phase Lock Loop530

14.4 Broadcast OTDM Networks531

14.5 Switch-Based Networks532

14.5.1 Functions of a Routing Node533

14.5.2 Deflection Routing536

14.5.3 Feed-Forward and Feedback Delay Lines540

14.6 OTDM Testbeds541

14.6.1 ATMOS542

14.6.2 BT Labs Testbeds543

14.6.3 Princeton University TestbeD543

14.6.4 AON544

14.6.5 CORD545

14.6.6 TBONE546

Summary546

Further Reading547

Problems548

References549

Ⅲ Appendices553

A Symbols and Parameters555

B Decibel Units559

C Nonlinear Polarization561

D Random Processes563

D.1 Random Variables563

D.1.1 Gaussian Distribution564

D.1.2 Maxwell Distribution565

D.1.3 Poisson Distribution565

D.2 Random Processes566

D.2.1 Poisson Random Process567

D.2.2 Gaussian Random Process568

Further Reading568

References568

E Multilayer Thin-Film Filters569

E.1 Wave Propagation at Dielectric Interfaces569

E.2 Filter Design573

References576

F Receiver Noise Statistics577

F.1 Shot Noise579

F.2 Amplifier Noise580

References582

G Graph Theory583

G.1 Walks and Cycles583

G.2 Planarity583

G.3 Connectivity585

Further Reading585

References585

H WDM Link MIB587

Bibliography589

Index613