The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice2025|PDF|Epub|mobi|kindle电子书版本百度云盘下载

The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal JusticePDF格式电子书版下载

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1 Science, Society, and Criminological Research1

Reasoning About the Social World2

Questions and Answers3

Everyday Errors in Reasoning3

OvergeneraLization4

SeLective or Inaccurate Observation4

Illogical Reasoning5

Resistance to Change6

The Social Science Approach8

Motives for Criminological Research8

Social CriminoLogical Research in Practice9

Description: How Prevalent Is Youth VioLence?10

ExpLoration: How Do SchooLs Respond to Gun Violence?11

ExpLanation: What Factors Are Related to Youth DeLinquency and VioLence?12

EvaLuation: Do VioLence Prevention Programs in SchooLs Work?13

Strengths and Limitations of Social Research13

Types of Research Methods15

Quantitative and Qualitative Methods16

Conclusion17

KEY TERMS18

HIGHLIGHTS18

EXERCISES18

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL19

WEB EXERCISES19

ETHICS EXERCISES19

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES20

2 The Process and Problems of Criminological Research21

Criminological Research Questions22

Identifying Criminological Research Questions23

Refining Criminological Research Questions24

Evaluating Criminological Research Questions24

FeasibiLity24

SociaL Importance25

Scientific ReLevance25

Social Research Foundations26

Finding Information26

Reviewing Research27

A Single-Article Review: Formal and Informal Deterrents to Domestic Violence28

An Integrated Literature Review: When Does Arrest Matter?29

The Rote of Criminological Theory32

Social Research Strategies35

Explanatory Research36

Deductive Research36

Inductive Research38

Domestic Violence and the Research Circle39

Phase 1: Deductive Research39

Phase 2: Deductive Research40

Phase 3: Inductive Research41

Phase 4: Deductive Research42

Exploratory Research43

A Qualitative Exploration of the Response to Domestic Violence43

Descriptive Research44

Social Research Goals44

Measurement Validity45

Generalizability45

Causal Validity46

Authenticity47

Conclusion47

KEY TERMS48

HIGHLIGHTS48

EXERCISES49

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL49

WEB EXERCISES50

ETHICS EXERCISES51

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES51

3 Research Ethics and Philosophies52

Historical Background55

Ethical Principles58

Achieving VaLid ResuLts58

Honesty and Openness59

Protecting Research Participants60

Avoid Harming Research Participants62

Obtain Informed Consent63

Avoid Deception in Research, Except in Limited Circumstances68

Maintain Privacy and Confidentiality68

The Uses of Research70

Social Research Philosophies71

Positivism and Postpositivism72

Positivist Research Guidelines72

A Positivist Research Goal: Advancing Knowledge73

Interpretivism and Constructivism74

Interpretivist/Constructivist Research Guidelines76

An Interpretivist Research Goal: Creating Change76

An Integrated Philosophy77

Conclusions78

KEY TERMS79

HIGHLIGHTS79

EXERCISES80

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL80

WEB EXERCISES81

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES81

4 Conceptualization and Measurement82

Concepts83

Conceptualization in Practice84

Defining Youth Gangs84

Defining Substance Abuse84

Defining Community Policing86

Defining Poverty87

Defininq Strain87

Concepts and Variables88

Measurement Operations88

Using Available Data89

Constructing Questions90

Making Observations91

Collecting Unobtrusive Measures92

Combining Measurement Operations92

Evaluation of Measures93

Measurement Validity93

Face Validity94

Content Validity95

Criterion Validity95

Construct Validity95

Reliability96

Test-Retest Reliability97

Interitem Reliability (Internal Consistency)97

Alternate-Forms Reliability97

Interobserver Reliability98

Ways to Improve Reliability and Validity98

Levels of Measurement100

Nominal Level of Measurement100

Ordinal Level of Measurement101

Interval Level of Measurement103

Ratio Level of Measurement103

The Case of Dichotomies104

Comparison of LeveLs of Measurement104

ConcLusion105

KEY TERMS106

HIGHLIGHTS106

EXERCISES107

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL107

WEB EXERCISES108

ETHICS EXERCISES108

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES108

5 SampLing109

SampLe PLanning110

Define Sample Components and the PopuLation110

EvaLuate Generatizabitity112

Assess Population Diversity115

Consider a Census117

SampLing Methods117

Probability Sampling Methods119

Simple Random SampLing120

Systematic Random SampLing123

Stratified Random SampLing123

Multistage Cluster Sampling125

Nonprobability Sampling Methods127

Availability Sampling127

Quota Sampling128

Purposive or Judgment Sampling129

Snowball SampLing131

Lessons About SampLe QuaLity132

SampLing Distributions133

Estimating Sampling Error134

Units of AnaLysis and Errors in Causal Reasoning138

Individual and Group Units of AnaLysis138

The Ecological Fallacy and Reductionism139

ConcLusion141

KEY TERMS141

HIGHLIGHTS142

EXERCISES143

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL144

WEB EXERCISES144

ETHICS EXERCISES145

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES145

6 Causation and Research Design146

Causal Explanation147

Nomothetic Causal ExpLanation147

Idiographic Causal ExpLanation149

Research Designs and Criteria for Causal Explanations150

Case Study: Media Violence and Violent Behavior151

Association151

Time Order152

Nonspuriousness152

Mechanism153

Context154

Research Designs and Causality155

True Experiments155

CausaLity and True Experimental Designs155

Field Experiments: Determining the Effect of Incarceration on Employment156

Nonexperimental Designs157

Cross-SectionaL Designs158

Case Study Using Life Calendars: Do Offenders Specialize in Different Crimes?160

Longitudinal Designs160

Repeated Cross-SectionaL Designs161

Fixed-Sample Panel Designs162

Case Study: Offending Over the Life Course163

Event-Based Designs164

Causality in Nonexperimental Designs165

Conclusion169

KEY TERMS169

HIGHLIGHTS170

EXERCISES170

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL171

WEB EXERCISES171

ETHICS EXERCISES172

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES172

7 Experimental Designs174

True Experiments175

Experimental and Comparison Groups175

Pretest and Posttest Measures176

Random Assignment176

Case Study: Prison Classification and Inmate Behavior180

Case Study: The Effects of Counsel at Bail Hearings181

Quasi-Experiments182

Nonequivalent Control Group Designs183

Case Study: The Effectiveness of Drug Courts183

Before-and-After Designs184

Case Study: The Effects of the Youth Criminal Justice Act184

Ex Post Facto Control Group Designs186

Case Study: Does an Arrest Increase Delinquency?186

Validity in Experiments187

Causal (Internal) VaLidity188

Selection Bias188

Endogenous Change189

External Events190

Contamination190

Treatment Misidentification191

GeneralizabiLity192

Sample Generalizability192

Factorial Surveys193

External Validity195

Interaction of Testing and Treatment195

Ethical Issues in Experimental Research196

Deception196

Selective Distribution of Benefits197

Conclusion198

KEY TERMS198

HIGHLIGHTS199

EXERCISES200

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL200

WEB EXERCISES201

ETHICS EXERCISES201

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES202

8 Survey Research203

Survey Research in the Social Sciences204

Attractive Features of Survey Research205

Versatility205

Efficiency205

Generalizability206

The Omnibus Survey206

Questionnaire Development and Assessment207

Maintain Consistent Focus207

Build on Existing Instruments208

Case Study: Measuring Violent Victimizations208

Writing Questions208

Write Clear and Meaningful Questions210

Avoid Confusing Phrasing213

Avoid Vagueness213

Avoid Negatives and Double Negatives213

Avoid Double-Barreled Questions214

Avoid Making Either Disagreement or Agreement Disagreeable215

Additional Guidelines for Fixed-Response Questions215

Response Choices Should Be Mutually Exclusive216

Make the Response Categories Exhaustive216

Utilize Likert-Type Response Categories217

Minimize Fence-Sitting and Floating217

Utilize Filter Questions218

Combining Questions in Indexes218

Demographic Questions224

Don't Forget to Pretest!226

Organization of the Questionnaire227

Survey Designs231

Mailed, Self-Administered Surveys232

Group-Administered Surveys233

Surveys by Telephone234

Reaching Sampling Units234

Maximizing Response to Phone Surveys235

In-Person Interviews238

Balancing Rapport and Control238

Maximizing Response to Interviews239

Web Surveys240

Mixed-Mode Surveys241

A Comparison of Survey Designs242

Ethical Issues in Survey Research245

Protection of Respondents245

Confidentiality245

Conclusion247

KEY TERMS248

HIGHLIGHTS248

EXERCISES249

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL249

WEB EXERCISES250

ETHICS EXERCISES251

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES251

9 Quatitative Methods and Analysis: Observing,Participating, and Listening252

Fundamentats of Quatitative Methods253

Origins of Qualitative Research256

Case Study: Life in a Gang256

Participant Observation257

Choosing a Rote258

Complete Observation258

Participation and Observation260

Covert Participation261

Entering the Field263

Developing and Maintaining Relationships264

Sampling People and Events265

Taking Notes267

Managing the Personal Dimensions270

Systematic Observation271

Case Study: Studying Public Disorder and Crime271

Intensive Interviewing275

Establishing and Maintaining a Partnership276

Asking Questions and Recording Answers277

Combining Participant Observation and Intensive Interviewing278

Focus Groups279

Combining Focus Groups With Official Records:An Analysis of Police Searches280

Analysis of Qualitative Data281

Documentation283

Conceptualization, Coding, and Categorizing283

Examining ReLationships and Displaying Data285

Authenticating Conclusions286

Reflexivity287

Alternatives in Qualitative Data Analysis288

Ethnography288

Ethnomethodology289

Qualitative Comparative Analysis290

Narrative Analysis291

Conversation Analysis292

Case-Oriented Understanding292

Grounded Theory293

Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis294

Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research297

Conclusion300

KEY TERMS300

HIGHLIGHTS300

EXERCISES301

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL302

WEB EXERCISES303

ETHICS EXERCISES303

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES304

10 Analyzing Content: Historical, Secondary,and Content Analysis and Crime Mapping305

Analyzing Secondary Data306

Case Study: Gender and Offending307

Historical Events Research308

Case Study: The MartinsviUe Seven310

Comparative Methods311

Case Study: Studying Homicide Across Nations311

Content Analysis314

Identifying a Population of Documents or Other Textual Sources314

Case Study: Media Representations of Crime315

Crime Mapping318

Case Study: Social Disorganization and the Chicago School320

Case Study: Gang Homicides in St. Louis320

Case Study: Using Google Earth to Track Sexual Offending Recidivism322

Methodological Issues When Using Secondary Data325

Measuring Across Contexts326

Sampling Across Time and Place327

Identifying Causes328

Combining Research Designs329

Comparing Research Designs329

Triangulating Research Designs331

Triangulation in Action: American Indian Homicide331

Case Study: Adding Qualitative Data to Official JuveniLe Records333

Ethical Issues When Analyzing Available Data and Content335

Conclusion336

KEY TERMS336

HIGHLIGHTS336

EXERCISES337

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL337

WEB EXERCISES338

ETHICS EXERCISES339

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES339

11 Evaluation and Policy Analysis340

A Brief History of EvaluaUon Research341

Evaluation Basics343

Evaluation Alternatives345

The Evaluation of Need, or Needs Assessment347

Evaluability Assessment347

Process Evaluation (Program Monitoring)348

Case Study: Evaluating the D.A.R.E. Program349

The Evaluation of Impact or Outcomes350

The Evaluation of Efficiency353

Case Study: Cost-Benefit Analysis of Therapeutic Communities354

Design Decisions355

Black Box Evaluation or Program Theory355

Researcher or Stakeholder Orientation356

Simple or Complex Outcomes358

EvaLuation in Action359

Case Study: Problem-Oriented Policing in Violent Crime Areas—A Randomized Controlled Experiment359

Strengths of Randomized Experimental Design in Impact EvaLuations362

Quasi-ExperimentaL Designs in EvaLuation Research362

Case Study: Boot Camps363

Case Study: Mandatory Sentencing Laws365

Nonexperimental Designs366

Case Study: Vocational Education for Serious Juvenile Offenders—A One-Shot Design366

Qualitative and Quantitative Methods367

Increasing Demand for Evidence-Based Policy369

Meta-Analyses370

Case Study: The Effectiveness of Anti-Bullying Programs371

Basic Science or Applied Research373

Ethics in Evaluation374

Conclusion376

KEY TERMS376

HIGHLIGHTS377

EXERCISES377

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL378

WEB EXERCISES378

ETHICS EXERCISES379

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES379

12 Quantitative Data Analysis380

Introducing Statistics381

Case Study: The Causes of Delinquency382

Preparing Data for Analysis384

Displaying Univariate Distributions386

Graphs387

Frequency Distributions391

Ungrouped Data392

Grouped Data393

Summarizing Univariate Distributions397

Measures of Central Tendency397

Mode397

Median398

Mean402

Median or Mean?403

Measures of Variation405

Range406

Interquartile Range406

Variance407

Standard Deviation408

Cross-Tabulating Variables408

Describing Association410

Controlling for a Third Variable413

Intervening Variables414

Extraneous Variables415

Specification418

Analyzing Data Ethically: How Not to Lie About Relationships419

Conclusion420

KEY TERMS420

HIGHLIGHTS421

EXERCISES421

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL422

WEB EXERCISES422

ETHICS EXERCISES423

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES423

13 Reporting Research Results424

Research Report Goats425

Advance Scientific Knowledge425

Shape Social Poticy426

Organize Social Action—Participatory Action Research426

Case Study: Seeking Higher Education for Inmates427

DiaLogue With Research Subjects427

On Writing Research428

Research Report Types429

Student Papers and Theses429

Group Projects430

The Thesis Committee430

Journal Articles430

Applied Reports432

An Advisory Committee432

Data Displays433

Ethics and Reporting436

Communicating With the Public437

Plagiarism438

Conctusion439

KEY TERMS440

HIGHLIGHTS440

EXERCISES441

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL441

WEB EXERCISES442

ETHICS EXERCISES442

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES442