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1. Decision Analysis1

1. Introduction1

2. Decision Trees5

A. A Simple Problem6

B. Uncertainty7

C. Risk Aversion10

D. Application: Settlement Negotiation11

E. Application: Land Purchase14

F. Generalizations21

G. Test Your Skill21

3. Acquiring the Necessary Information24

A. Structure24

B. Probabilities25

C. Payoffs28

4. Sensitivity Analysis28

5. Suggestions for Further Reading30

2. Gaines and Information33

1. Introduction to Game Theory33

2. Description of Games34

3. Solving Games40

4. Moral Hazard and Incentives47

5. Adverse Selection52

6. Bargaining55

7. Suggestions for Further Reading58

3. Contracting61

1. Introduction61

2. Why Contracts Are Made62

A. Differences in Valuation62

B. Advantages in Production63

C. Complementarities64

D. Borrowing and Lending64

E. Allocation of Risk64

F. Different Expectations65

3. Principles and Checkpoints for Contracting65

A. Enlarging the Contractual Pie65

B. Incentive Issues67

C. Uncertainty and Risk Bearing68

D. Practical Enforceability of Contractual Conditions69

E. Disputes and Their Resolution70

4. Production Contracts71

A. Incentives and Component Prices71

B. Incentives and Component Quality74

C. Uncertainty and Renegotiation76

D. Uncertainty and Risk Bearing77

E. Application: School Gymnasium79

F. Developing Arguments in Contract Litigation82

5. Principal and Agent Contracts84

A. Incentives85

B. Risk Bearing88

C. Application: Coffee Shop Manager90

6. Other Types of Contracts95

A. Joint Undertakings95

B. Sale or Lease of Property98

C. Loan Contracts100

7. Resolving Contractual Disputes103

A. Contingent Provisions103

B. Damages for Breach105

C. Arbitration107

8. Negotiating the Contract108

A. Both Sides Should Understand How to Enlarge the Pie108

B. Be Greedy but Not Too Greedy109

9. Suggestions for Further Reading110

4. Accounting111

1. Introduction111

2. Three Basic Accounting Formats113

A. Balance Sheets113

B. Income Statements118

C. Summaries of Cash Flows121

3. Double-Entry Bookkeeping and the Accountant's Frame of Reference124

A. The Transactional Nature of Financial Statements124

B. The Fundamentals of Double-Entry Bookkeeping125

4. Some Fundamental Concepts133

A. The Big Picture133

B. The Conservative Bias of Accountants136

C. The Matching Principle and Its (Profound) Implications137

D. Boundary Problems145

5. The Institutional and Legal Structure of Accounting148

A. Institutions and the Creation of Accounting Standards148

B. Finding Financial Statements and Related Information151

6. The Analysis of Financial Statements159

A. Liquidity160

B. Solvency161

C. Managerial Efficiency162

D. Profitability163

E. Earnings per Share and Price-Earnings Ratios165

7. Suggestions for Further Reading167

2009 Amazon.com Annual Report168

5. Finance209

1. Introduction209

2. The Foundations of Financial Theory212

A. The Theory of the Firm212

B. The Roots of Modern Finance221

C. The Goals of Finance229

3. The Time Value of Money229

A. Comparing Current Dollars to Future Dollars230

B. Simple versus Compound Interest232

C. Finding the Present Value of a Single Future Payment233

D. Valuing a Stream of Future Payments235

E. Internal Rates of Return238

F. What Interest Rate Should You Use?240

G. Take-Home Lessons on the Time Value of Money243

4. Key Concepts in Corporate Finance244

A. The Efficient Market Hypotheses244

B. Risk and Return250

C. The Value of Diversification255

D. The Capital Asset Pricing Model259

5. The Valuation of Assets261

A. Contemporaneous Transactions Involving Substantially Similar Assets262

B. Market Valuation Estimates Derived from Financial Statements263

C. Discounted Cash Flow Analysis264

6. Suggestions for Further Reading267

Eskimo Pie Corporation269

6. Microeconomics283

1. Introduction283

2. The Theory of the Competitive Market284

A. Demand Curves284

B. Supply Curves293

C. Determination of Market Price and Quantity296

D. Government Intervention in Markets300

E. Social Welfare and the Market303

F. Social Welfare Evaluation of Government Intervention in Competitive Markets313

3. Imperfect Consumer Information315

A. Importance315

B. Problems: Inappropriate Purchases and Distorted Product Quality316

C. Policy Responses317

4. Monopoly and Related Market Behavior320

A. Why Monopoly Arises320

B. How a Monopolist Sets Price321

C. The Principal Economic Arguments Against Monopoly326

D. Price Discrimination328

E. Government Policy and Monopoly330

F. Oligopoly and Monopolistic Competition333

5. Externalities335

A. What Are Externalities?335

B. The Problem of Externalities: Private Behavior Is Not Socially Desirable336

C. Resolution of Externality Problems Through Bargaining336

D. Resolution of Externality Problems Through Markets339

E. Resolution of Externality Problems Through Legal Rules339

6. Public Goods344

A. Definition344

B. Ideal Supply344

C. Inadequate Supply by the Private Sector345

D. Public Provision345

E. Qualifications345

F. Direct Versus Indirect Public Provision347

7. Welfare Economics347

A. What Is Welfare Economics?347

B. Individual Well-Being348

C. Social Welfare348

D. Social Welfare Maximum: Efficiency and Distribution351

E. Social Welfare and the Market351

F. Answers to Questions and Common Criticisms351

8. Suggestions for Further Reading355

7. Economic Analysis of Law357

1. Introduction357

A. The Economic Approach357

B. What Distinguishes Economic from Other Analysis of Law?359

C. History of the Economic Approach359

2. Property Law360

A. Definition of Property Rights360

B. Justifications for Property Rights361

C. Emergence of Property Rights362

D. Division of Property Rights364

E. Acquisition and Transfer of Property365

F. Conflicts in the Use of Property: Externalities368

G. Public Property368

H. Acquisition of Public Property368

I. Property Rights in Information370

3. Torts376

A. Unilateral Accidents and Levels of Care376

B. Bilateral Accidents and Levels of Care380

C. Unilateral Accidents, Levels of Care, and Levels of Activity380

D. Accidents Involving Firms as Injurers385

E. Risk Aversion, Insurance, and Liability390

F. Liability and Administrative Costs395

G. Economic Analysis of Tort Law versus Traditional Analysis396

4. Contracts396

A. Definitions and Framework of Analysis397

B. Contract Formation398

C. Incompleteness of Contracts400

D. Interpretation of Contracts401

E. Damage Measures for Breach of Contract401

F. Specific Performance407

G. Renegotiation410

H. Legal Overriding of Contracts412

I. Extralegal Means of Enforcement413

5. Civil Litigation414

A. Bringing of Suit414

B. Settlement versus Trial420

C Trial427

6. Public Law Enforcement and Criminal Law429

A. Basic Framework429

B. Enforcement Given the Probability of Detection430

C. Enforcement When the Probability of Detection Is Variable432

D. Monetary Sanctions versus Imprisonment434

E. Incapacitation434

F. Criminal Law435

7. Welfare Economics437

A. Framework of Welfare Economics437

B. Distributional Objectives Should Not Affect Legal Policy, Given Income Taxation438

C. Normative Analysis Based on Notions of Fairness (Apart from the Purely Distributional)438

D. Remarks441

8. Criticism of Economic Analysis of Law441

A. Inability to Predict Human Behavior and Irrationality441

B. Indeterminacy of Recommendations442

C. Political Bias442

9. Suggestions for Further Reading443

8. Fundamentals of Statistical Analysis445

1. Descriptive Statistics445

A. Making Sense of Data447

B. Histograms and Frequency Distributions447

C. Numerical Descriptors/Summaries of Distributions457

D. The Normal Distribution464

E. Z-Scores and the Z-Table467

2. One-Variable Inferential Statistics469

A. Samples and Sampling469

B. Survey Data and Validity472

C. Hypothesis Testing476

D. Estimation483

E. Statistical Significance and the Real World484

3. Suggestions for Further Reading486

Z-Table487

9. Multivariate Statistics489

1. Bivariate Statistics489

A. Scatterplots490

B. Linear Relationships492

C. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient494

D. Simple Linear Regression501

E. Residuals510

F. Limitations of Linear Regression512

2. Multiple Regression513

A. Multiple Regression and Discrimination Litigation515

B. Things That Can Go Wrong521

3. Suggestions for Further Reading524

T-Table (abbreviated)526

Glossary of Statistical Terms527

Index535