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1 Defining cultural heritage in international law1

Introduction1

The notion of cultural heritage1

The values attributable to cultural heritage3

The expressive value of cultural heritage4

Preservation of archaeological and historical evidence5

Economic value5

To whom the cultural heritage is of value7

Group or community8

The nation9

Humankind11

The meaning of protection14

Physical protection14

Protection in situ15

Protection of visibility and accessibility15

Retention of cultural heritage16

Protection as co-operation17

Conclusion18

The legal value of cultural heritage19

The definition of cultural heritage in International Conventions20

Conclusion:For the purposes of the present Convention28

Post script:A note on terminology29

2 International legal framework31

Introduction31

The International Law of Conventions32

The adoption of Conventions and consent by States to be bound32

Protocols35

Reservations36

Entry into force38

Revision of Conventions39

Retrospectivity of Conventions40

The national implementation of international Conventions41

Interpretation of Conventions44

The binding nature of Conventions48

The State in whose territory the cultural heritage is found48

Other States Parties to a Convention49

Third States50

The international community51

Customary international law52

Soft law54

3 Cultural heritage and armed conflicts56

Introduction56

The armed conflict in the Balkans57

Iraq and the Gulf Wars59

A history of war and cultural heritage63

The Hague Regulations67

The First World War and its aftermath69

The Second World War and the 1949 Geneva Conventions73

The doctrine of military necessity76

1954 Hague Convention78

Overview of the Convention78

The preamble's guiding principles80

Scope of Application of the Convention81

Definition of cultural property85

The core Conventional duties87

Safeguarding cultural property87

Respect for cultural property89

Occupation93

Special protection97

Special protection and the military necessity exception99

The international regulatory regime102

First Protocol and occupation104

The 1977 Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions108

The 1999 Second Protocol110

General provisions regarding protection112

The enhanced protection regime117

The list of cultural property under enhanced protection118

Enhanced protection and military necessity119

Penal sanctions122

New institutional arrangements126

The protection of cultural property during armed conflict and customary international law127

Conclusion130

4 The return,restitution and repatriation of movable cultural heritage132

Introduction132

The history of the protection of movable cultural heritage133

The return,restitution and repatriation framework136

The market for cultural heritage136

Defining terms of movement140

Restitution140

Return142

Repatriation144

Place of origin145

Identifying the physical origin146

Identifying the cultural origin146

Concepts of ownership148

Private ownership148

State ownership150

State ownership through forfeiture153

Export restrictions153

Effectiveness of national laws155

The retentionist debate157

Return of cultural heritage160

The universal museum164

The return of human remains165

The 1970 Convention166

The negotiation history166

The preamble's guiding principles167

Definition of cultural property168

National cultural property170

Making illicit the export and import of cultural property174

The export and import regime176

An expanded interpretation of the export and import regime177

A narrow interpretation of the export and import regime178

The timing of the illicit export and import183

Transfer of ownership of cultural property183

National services and duties that address the illicit trade in cultural property185

Sanctions187

Occupied and controlled territories188

Bilateral agreements189

Participation in the Convention191

An evaluation of the Convention195

The 1995 UNIDROIT Convention196

The preamble's guiding principles198

Defining cultural objects199

Scope of the Convention200

The restitution of stolen cultural objects201

The right of the original owner to restitution202

Time limitations204

Compensation206

Illegally exported cultural objects208

Time limitations212

Compensation212

The exception to the rule214

Jurisdiction215

Non-retrospectivity217

An evaluation of the UNIDROIT Convention218

The illicit trade in Iraqi cultural property219

5 World Heritage Convention224

Introduction224

National protection for monuments224

The development of the Conventional regime226

The World Heritage Convention227

The preamble's guiding principles228

Defining world cultural heritage230

Determining 'outstanding universal value'232

Outstanding universal value as an evolving concept233

The 2008 Operational Guidelines' criteria for outstanding universal value236

The legal meaning of outstanding universal value237

Authenticity and integrity238

The protection and management regime240

Defining the natural heritage240

National protection of cultural heritage241

International protection of cultural heritage244

Deliberate actions of a State that damages the World Heritage245

Property rights and national legislation246

The World Heritage Committee247

The World Heritage List248

The Tentative List250

Nomination and listing of cultural heritage on the World Heritage List252

The List255

The List of World Heritage in Danger257

World Cultural Heritage not Inscribed on the World Heritage List 261 International assistance262

Cultural heritage eligible for international assistance263

Types of international assistance264

Requests and granting of assistance265

The administration of the international assistance granted267

The World Heritage Fund267

The nature of States Parties contribution to the Fund268

The management of the Fund269

The administrative framework271

The advisory bodies272

The reporting structure273

The relationship between UNESCO and the World Heritage administrative structure275

The nature of the international obligations in the World Heritage Convention276

Obligations erga omnes277

Enforcement of obligations278

The temples of Angkor and the Buddhas of Bamiyan278

The Angkor Archaeological Park278

Bamiyan Buddhas279

The future of the Convention285

Conclusion286

6 Underwater cultural heritage287

Introduction287

From salvage to underwater archaeology289

Beginnings289

The nascent discipline of underwater archaeology291

The continued application of salvage law292

The Nuestra Senora de Atocha294

The Geldermalsen296

The Central America297

The Titanic298

The law of salvage and finds300

Marine peril300

Voluntary efforts303

Success304

Salvor's rights304

Exclusive possession305

Salvage award307

Ownership of underwater cultural heritage309

Finders312

The conflict between archaeology and salvage313

The economic exploitation of underwater cultural heritage314

Ownership of artefacts316

Splitting up of collections317

Employment of inappropriate recovery techniques318

Co-operation between user groups319

Conclusion320

International law of the sea320

Article 149321

Article 303323

Council of Europe Draft Convention329

Salvage Convention330

Underwater Cultural Heritage Convention331

The International Law Association initiative331

The scope of the convention333

Defining 'underwater cultural heritage'333

Warships and other State owned vessels335

Identifying the activities to be regulated338

The geographical scope339

Good archaeological practice340

In situ preservation341

The place of salvage law and the law of finds342

The development of the non-commercialisation clause343

The development of the salvage law clause345

The jurisdictional structure347

The enforcement regime350

Authorisation,sanctions and seizure350

Competent authorities,public awareness and training354

International co-operation in the protection of underwater cultural heritage356

International principles and consistency358

Conclusion360

7 Intangible cultural heritage362

Introduction362

The legal protection of intangible cultural heritage363

The intangible cultural Heritage Convention367

The preamble's guiding principles and context367

Purpose of the Convention369

Defining the intangible cultural heritage371

The Conventional structure373

National safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage374

The international safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage376

The Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage377

Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity377

The List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding379

International co-operation and assistance381

The Fund383

The tangible and intangible relationship384

Conclusion385

8 From five international conventions to an international law of co-operation388

Introduction388

A convention of its time388

The extent of overlap between the cultural heritage conventions390

From norms to international co-operation396

The normative conventional regimes397

International enforcement400

Criminal offences against cultural heritage in international law402

Conventional norms as the sustainer of conflict403

The co-operative conventional regimes404

A principled basis for the protection of cultural heritage405

Cultural heritage as the common concern of humankind405

Cultural heritage as the common heritage of humankind406

The international concept of the common heritage of humankind407

Cultural 'nationalism' vs 'internationalism'408

An institutional approach413

UNESCO's mandate413

The relationship between UNESCO and the UNESCO cultural heritage conventions415

Education419

Principle of co-operation421

The future of the international law of co-operation423

Appendix Ⅰ:Table of State Parties425

Appendix Ⅱ:Defining the Cultural Heritage430

Bibliography434

Index448