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Chapter 1 Linguistics-A Pilot Science1

1.1 Why Study Linguistics？1

1.2 What Is Language？-Defining the Object of Study2

1.3 Origin of Language3

1.4 Design Features of Language5

1.4.1 Arbitrariness5

1.4.2 Duality10

1.4.3 Creativity11

1.4.4 Displacement12

1.5 Animal Communication Systems,Gesture and Other Language Forms12

1.6 Perspectives of Language Studies15

1.6.1 Language as Innate Human Knowledge16

1.6.2 Language as a Fixed Code17

1.6.3 Language as a System17

1.6.4 Language as Interaction19

1.7 Functions of Language20

1.7.1 Theories of the Functions of Language20

1.7.2 Referential Function22

1.7.3 Interpersonal Function23

1.7.4 Performative Function24

1.7.5 Emotive Function24

1.7.6 Phatic Communion25

1.7.8 Metalingual Function26

1.7.7 Recreational Function26

1.8 Important Distinctions in Linguistics27

1.8.1 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive27

1.8.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic30

1.8.3 Langue Parole31

1.8.4 Competence and Performance32

1.8.5 Actual and Potential Linguistic Choice34

1.8.6 Etic vs. Emic34

1.8.7 Formalism vs. Functionalism36

1.9 Data of Linguistics38

1.10 Status and Prospect of Linguistics40

References42

Chapter 2 Phonetics45

2.1 The Study of Speech Sounds45

2.1.1 Aspects of the Study of Speech Sounds45

2.1.2 Speech Production and Perception46

2.2 Speech Organs47

2.3 Segments,Divergences,and Phonetic Transcription51

2.3.1 Segments and Divergences51

2.3.2 Phonetic Transcription and the IPA52

2.3.3 Consonants and Vowels55

2.4 Consonants55

2.4.1 Manners of Articulation56

2.4.2 Places of Articulation59

2.4.3 The Consonants of English61

2.5 Vowels62

2.5.1 The Criteria of Vowel Description62

2.5.2 The Theory of Cardinal Vowels63

2.5.3 The Change of Vowel Quality66

2.6 The Vowels of English66

2.7 Coarticulation,Broad and Narrow Transcriptions74

2.7.1 Coarticulation74

2.7.2 Broad and Narrow Transcriptions75

2.8 Syllables76

2.8.1 The Syllable Structure76

2.8.2 Sonority Scale77

2.8.3 The Problems with the Sonority Scale79

2.8.4 Syllabification and the Maximal Onset Principle79

2.9 Stress80

2.9.1 Stressed and Unstressed Syllables80

2.9.2 Stress in English80

2.9.3 Primary and Secondary Stresses81

2.9.4 Sentence Stress81

2.10 Pitch,Intonation,and Tone82

2.10.1 Pitch82

2.10.2 Intonation83

2.10.3 Tone86

References87

2.10.4 Stress,Tone,and Pitch Accent Languages87

3.1 Phonological Analysis90

Chapter 3 Phonology90

3.2 Phonemes and Allophones91

3.2.1 Minimal Pairs91

3.2.2 The Phoneme Theory93

3.2.3 Allophones94

3.3 Phonological Processes97

3.3.1 Assimilation97

3.3.2 Phonological Processes and Phonological Rules98

3.3.3 Rule Ordering100

3.4.1 The Theory of Distinctive Features103

3.4 Distinctive Features103

3.4.2 A List of Distinctive Features105

3.5 Optimality Theory109

3.6 Conclusion113

References114

Chapter 4 Morphology116

4.1 Introduction116

4.2 Morphemes,Morphs and Allomorphs117

4.3 Classifying Morphemes119

4.3.1 Free versus Bound Morphemes120

4.3.2 Derivational versus Inflectional Morphemes121

4.3.3 Lexical versus Grammatical Morphemes122

4.4 Identifying Morphemes123

4.5 Allomorphy125

4.5.1 Phonological Conditioning125

4.5.2 Morphological Conditioning126

4.5.3 Stylistic Conditioning128

4.6 Word,Word-form and Lexeme128

4.7 Morphology and Word-formation130

4.7.1 Root,Stem and Base130

4.7.2 Affix132

4.7.3 Hierarchical Structure of Words133

4.7.4 Productivity136

4.7.5 Word-formation Processes137

4.8 Approaches and problems141

4.8.1 Item and Arrangement142

4.8.2 Item and Process142

4.8.3 Word and Paradigm143

4.8.4 Character-based Approach143

References145

Chapter 5 Generative Syntax148

5.1 Generative Grammar：Some Basic Assumptions148

5.1.1 Generative Grammar and Chomsky148

5.1.2 E-language and I-language149

5.1.3 Criteria of Adequacy150

5.2 Phrase Structure Grammar152

5.1.4 The Development of Generative Grammar：Three Theoretical Models152

5.2.1 Rule-Generated Language：A Simple Example153

5.2.2 Context Free Phrase Structure Rules154

5.2.3 Transformation157

5.2.4 Subcategorizaton159

5.3 Projection from Lexicon162

5.3.1 Some Conceptual Difficulties with Phrase Structural Rules162

5.3.2 Projection Principle164

5.3.3 The Extended Projection Principle166

5.3.4 Adjunction170

5.3.5 X-bar Schema172

5.3.6 Extending X-bar Schema to Functional Categories175

5.3.7 Theta-theory182

5.3.8 Movement and Trace187

5.3.9 Case Theory191

5.3.10 Types of Syntactic Relations193

5.4 The Minimalist Approach203

5.4.1 Merge/Move204

5.4.2 Minimizing to Bare Essentials208

5.4.3 Checking and Checking Theory210

5.4.4 VP Shells219

References225

6.1.1 Subject228

6.1 Vilém Mathesius228

Chapter 6 Functional Syntax228

6.1.2 Predication230

6.1.3 Object234

6.1.4 Subject-predicate Relations239

6.1.5 Object-predicate Relations241

6.1.6 Functional Sentence Perspective(FSP)242

6.2 Franti？ek Dane？244

6.2.1 A Three-level Approach to Syntax244

6.2.2 Sentence Patterns and Predicate Classes248

6.3 Michael Halliday257

6.3.1 Processes258

6.3.2 Participants261

6.3.3 Circumstances267

6.4 Summary272

References272

Chapter 7 Semantics278

7.1 Introduction278

7.2 Meanings of “Meaning”279

7.3 The Referential Theory281

7.4 Sense Relations283

7.4.1 Synonymy284

7.4.2 Antonymy284

7.4.3 Hyponymy289

7.5 Componential Analysis291

7.6 Sentence Meaning294

7.6.1 An Integrated Theory295

7.6.2 Logical Semantics300

7.6.3 Montague Semantics307

Referemces314

Chapter 8 Linguistic Comparison316

8.1 Introduction316

8.2 Comparative and Historical Linguistics317

8.2.1 The Emergence of the Branch of Linguistics317

8.2.2 The Stages of Development317

8.3 Typological Comparison338

8.3.1 Linguistic Typology and Linguistic Universals339

8.3.2 Typological Classification342

8.3.3 Implicational Universals346

8.3.4 Functional Typological Classification350

References356

Chapter 9 Language,Culture,and Society358

9.1 Introduction358

9.2 Language and Culture359

9.2.1 How Does Language Relate to Culture？360

9.2.2 What More Should We Know about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis？365

9.2.3 What Evidence Can We Give to Show the Close Relationship Between Language and Culture？370

9.2.4 To What Extent Do We Need Culture in Our Linguistic Study？371

9.3 Language and Society372

9.3.1 How Does Language Relate to Society？374

9.3.2 What Do We Mean by a Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective？374

9.3.3 What More Should We Know about Sociolinguistics？377

9.3.4 What Implications Can We Get from Sociolinguistics？381

9.4 Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching383

9.4.1 How Are Some Leading Sociolinguistic Theories Related to Language Teaching？384

9.4.2 Why Should We Teach Cultural Things in Our Classroom？390

9.4.3 What Should We Teach about Culture in Our Classroom？394

9.4.4 What Contributions Has Sociolinguistics Provided to the Field of Language Teaching？396

9.5 Summary397

References398

Chapter 10 Psycholinguistics405

10.1 Introduction405

10.2 Language Comprehension407

10.2.1 Modularity407

10.2.2 Speech Perception409

10.2.3 Lexical Access410

10.2.4 Sentence Processing411

10.2.5 Discourse and Text Comprehension416

10.2.6 The Underlying Elements of Reading420

10.3 Language Production427

10.3.1 From Concept to Expression428

10.3.2 Implications from Error Data430

10.4 Illustrated Experiment：A Comparative Study of Understanding English and Chinese Texts432

10.4.1 Experimental Design432

10.4.2 Hypothesis and Prediction433

10.4.3 Methods433

10.4.4 Discussions on Hypothesis436

References438

Chapter 11 Pragmatics443

11.1 Introduction443

11.2 Speech Act Theory444

11.2.1 Performatives and Constatives444

11.2.2 A Theory of the Illocutionary Act447

11.2.3 Classes of Illocutionary Acts449

11.2.4 Searle s Revisions451

11.3 The Classical Theory of Implicature456

11.3.1 The Cooperative Principle456

11.3.2 Violation of the Maxims459

11.3.3 Characteristics of Implicature462

11.4 Post-Gricean Developments466

11.4.1 Relevance Theory466

11.4.2 The Q-and R-principles473

11.4.3 The Q-,I-and M-principles479

References487

12.1.1 Chinese Stylistics489

12.1 Introduction489

Chapter 12 Stylistics489

12.1.2 Western Stylistics490

12.1.3 Chinese Studies of Western Stylistics490

12.2 Style and Stylistics491

12.2.1 What Is Style？491

12.2.2 For Whom the Stylistician Works？Writer？Text？Reader？Context？Or Meaning？492

12.3 Style as Rhetoric：the Initial Stage of Stylistics493

12.4 One Style or Several Styles？495

12.5 Aspects of Style：the Writer-Style as Writer s Individual/Personal Singularities498

12.5.1 Buffon：Style Is the Man Himself498

12.5.2 Spitzer：The Philological Circle and Its Methods500

12.6.1 Jakobson s Projection Theory：Style as Structural Equivalence502

12.6 Aspects of Style：the Text-Style as Linguistic Sameness(Structural Equivalence)502

12.6.2 Ohmann s Structural Transformation Theory：Style as Transformation504

12.7 Aspects of Style：the Text-Style as Linguistic Difference507

12.7.1 Types of Deviation(Leech,1969)507

12.7.2 The Significance of Deviation511

12.8 Aspects of Style：the Reader-Style as Reader s Response511

12.8.1 Stylistic Facts versus Linguistic Facts512

12.8.2 Reader s Response512

12.8.3 The Absence of the Reader512

12.8.4 The Responses513

12.8.5 The Superreader513

12.9.1 Linguistics versus Stylistics514

12.8.6 Comments on Riffaterre s Theory514

12.9 Aspects of Style：the Context：Style as Function514

12.9.2 Stylistic Factors and Differentiations516

12.9.3 Main Features of the Basic Functional Styles of the Standard Language518

12.9.4 Style as Foregrounding519

12.10 Aspects of Style：the Meaning：Style as Meaning Potential520

12.10.1 Linguistic Stylistics520

12.10.2 Hallidayan Analysis522

12.11 Concluding Remarks：Linguistics,Literary Criticism,and Stylistics526

12.11.1 Linguistics and Stylistics526

12.11.2 Linguistic Critic526

12.11.3 Literary Criticism527

12.11.4 Stylistics：an Area of Mediation528

References529

Chapter 13 Computational Linguistics532

13.1 What is Computational Linguistics？532

13.2 Computer-assisted Language Learning(CALL)533

13.2.1 Definition and Activities533

13.2.2 Phases of CALL Development534

13.2.3 Technology538

13.3 Machine Translation540

13.3.1 History of Development540

13.3.2 Research Methods543

13.3.3 Evaluation of MT and Translation Tools545

13.3.4 MT and the Internet546

13.3.5 Speech Translation547

13.3.6 MT and Human Translation547

13.4 Corpus Linguistics550

13.4.1 Definition550

13.4.2 Development,Categorization and Taxonomy551

13.4.3 Constructing a Corpus554

13.4.4 Concordances and Corpora556

13.5 Information Retrieval558

13.5.1 Scope Defined558

13.5.2 An Information Retrieval System559

13.5.3 Three Main Areas of Research560

13.6 Internet562

13.6.1 Email563

13.6.2 News564

13.6.3 Newsgroup and Chatroom565

13.7 Looking into the Future566

References567

Chapter 14 Second Language Acquisition572

14.1 Introduction572

14.2 The Role of Internal Mechanisms573

14.2.1 The UG Approach573

14.2.2 UG and SLA576

14.2.3 Connectionism and SLA579

14.2.4 The Information Processing Approach to SLA582

14.2.5 Skehen s Information Processing Framework584

14.3 The Role of Native Language587

14.4 Input,Interaction and Output592

14.5 Non-language Influences595

14.6 Summary600

References600

Chapter 15 Linguistics and Second Language Teaching605

15.1 An Overview607

15.2 Stage Ⅰ(1880-1940)：Implicit Influence609

15.2.1 Francois Gouin s Initial Attempt610

15.2.2 Henry Sweet s Linguistic Approach612

15.2.3 Harold Palmer as Father of British Applied Linguistics613

15.2.4 Summary614

15.3 Stage Ⅱ(1940-1960)：Positive and Powerful614

15.3.1 The Army Method in the Wartime614

15.3.2 The Audiolingual Method616

15.3.3 Contrastive Analysis617

15.3.4 Summary618

15.4 Stage Ⅲ(1960-1970)：Negative but Powerful619

15.4.1 TG Grammar as a Liberating Force in L2 Teaching619

15.4.2 The Cognitive Approach621

15.4.3 Error Analysis622

15.5 Stage Ⅳ(1970-1980)：Inconsistent624

15.4.4 Summary624

15.5.1 The Communicative Approach625

15.5.2 The Natural Approach628

15.5.3 Diversification in Teaching Methods630

15.5.4 Summary634

15.6 Stage Ⅴ(1980-2000)：Complex634

15.6.1 Changes in the Field of Applied Linguistics635

15.6.2 An Enlightened Eclectic approach Proposed by Douglas Brown639

15.6.3 A Balanced Approach by Peter Skehan646

15.6.4 Summary656

References657

16.1.1 Introduction661

Chapter 16 Modern Theorles and Schools of Linguistics661

16.1 The Beginning of Modern Linguistics661

16.1.2 Sources of Saussure s Ideas662

16.1.3 Saussure s Theorizing666

16.1.4 Saussure s Legacy670

16.1.5 Conclusion671

16.2 The Prague School and the Copenhagen School672

16.2.1 The Prague School672

16.2.2 The Copenhagen School681

16.3 The London School683

16.3.1 Malinowski684

16.3.2 Firth686

16.3.3 Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar692

16.3.4 Conclusion707

16.4 American Structuralism708

16.4.1 Early Period：Boas and Sapir708

16.4.2 Bloomfield s Theory712

16.4.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics715

16.4.4 Conclusion718

16.5 Transformational-Generative Grammar719

16.5.1 The Innateness Hypothesis721

16.5.2 What Is a Generative Grammar？724

16.5.3 The Classical Theory725

16.5.4 The Standard Theory731

16.5.5 The Extended Standard Theory734

16.5.6 Later Theories736

16.5.7 Conclusion738

16.6 Other Theories：Revisionists or Rebels？740

16.6.1 Stratificational Grammar740

16.6.2 Case Grammar742

16.6.3 Generative Semantics744

16.6.4 Relational Grammar746

16.7 Concluding Remarks749

References750

Index754