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CHAPTER 1 ACCIDENT LOSSES1

Costs of Well-Being1

The Industrial Revolution and Accidents2

Increasing Hazards3

Physical Effects of Accidents4

Numbers of Accidents vs.Costs6

Lessening Safety Costs9

Accident Losses for Personnel vs.Equipment and Facilities Increasing Magnitude of Accident Losses11

Awards for Injuries12

Bibliography13

Exercises13

CHAPTER 2 LIABILITIES AND SAFETY LEGISLATION15

Statute Law15

Common Law16

Misadventure(Accident)17

Strict Liability17

Industrial Revolution19

Negligence19

American Laws22

Steam Engines,Boats,and Locomotives22

The Fourteenth Amendment and Safety23

Liability Laws23

Workers'Compensation Laws24

Later Actions25

Resurgence of Strict Liability25

Limited Liability27

Excused Negligence27

Bibliography27

Exercises28

CHAPTER 3 WORKERS'COMPENSATION29

Obligations to Employees29

Workers'Compensation Laws30

Problems of Nonuniformity32

Coverages34

Workers'Compensation Insurance34

Costs of Workers'Compensation Insurance34

Insurance Rating Systems37

Keeping Workers'Compensation Costs Down37

Workers'Compensation Reform39

Requirements for Benefits40

Disagreements40

Injury Resulting from an Accident41

Injury Arising out of Employment41

Types of Disabilities43

Monetary Disability Benefits44

Death Benefits44

Extent of Medical Benefits44

Injury and Claim Notices45

Hearings45

Action against a Third Party46

Inadequacy of Workers'Compensation49

Bibliography50

Exercises50

CHAPTER 4 OSHACT AND ITS ADMINISTRATION52

New Concepts of Accident Avoidance53

Enactment of the Occupational Safety and Health Act(OSHAct)55

Other Organizations55

State Industrial Safety Programs56

Responsibilities of Employers and Employees58

Inspections58

Violations and Penalties59

Standards62

Record Keeping62

Impact of OSHA62

OSHA and Hazard Minimization64

Antagonism toward OSHA64

The New Millennium67

The New OSHA68

Exercises72

CHAPTER 5 STANDARDS,CODES,AND OTHER SAFETY DOCUMENTS73

Uses for Standards and Codes74

Mandatory vs.Voluntary Standards76

Objections to Consensus Standards79

Test Standards80

Differences in Standards81

Changing Standards83

Inadequacies of Standards83

Standards and Analyses84

Proliferation of Standards84

Status of OSHA Standards84

Bibliography85

Exercises86

CHAPTER 6 ENGINEERS AND SAFETY87

Accomplishments of Engineers87

Engineering and Accidents88

Steam Equipment and Accidents88

Technical Societies and Safety89

Inadequacy of Engineering Schools89

Engineers as Causers of Accidents90

Registration of Engineers91

Possible Improvements in Registration95

Bibliography97

Exercises97

CHAPTER 7 MANAGEMENT AND ITS RESPONSIBILITIES98

Safety Policies98

OSHAct and Management100

Actions against Managers100

Management Attitudes toward Safety102

Middle Managers106

Foremen/Forewomen and Safety106

Procedural Safeguards107

Management and Supervision108

Safety Efforts of Other Managers110

Hazardous Operations112

Personnel113

Personal Protective Equipment114

Checklist for Managers115

Safety Information System115

Bibliography118

Exercises119

CHAPTER 8 THE CHANGING ROLES OF SAFETY PERSONNEL120

Safety Laws and Safety Engineers121

Safety Personnel122

"Safety Man"123

Safety Engineer123

Production and Processing Losses125

Growing Areas within Safety125

Bibliography126

Exercises126

CHAPTER 9 PERSONNEL127

Disabled Personnel in the Workplace128

Older Personnel in the Workforce130

Human Error130

Designing and Planning Errors131

Production Errors132

Operations Errors135

Two-Person Concept136

Human vs.Machine136

The Biochemical Machine137

Motivation138

Violence in the Workplace139

Judgment141

Accident-Prone Persons142

Quantitative Error Prediction144

Human Factors Engineering145

Procedural Means of Accident Prevention146

Critical Operations146

Responsibilities of the Individual Worker149

Procedure Analysis151

Outputs of Procedure Analysis155

Contingency Analysis155

Bibliography157

Exercises157

CHAPTER 10 PROMOTING SAFE PRACTICES159

The Behavior-Based Safety Approach160

The Regulatory Approach:Safety Rules162

Employee Participation162

Critical Incident Technique163

Other Methods164

Suggestion Programs164

Union Participation165

Safety Training165

In-depth Training167

Maintaining Awareness168

General Comments on Safety Committees168

Safety Committee Duties169

Bibliography170

Exercises170

CHAPTER 11 APPRAISING PLANT SAFETY171

New Plants and Equipment Designs172

Existing Plants and Equipment172

Indicating Plant Hazards173

Safety Inspections174

Checklists175

Quantitative Appraisals176

Problems with Validity of Statistics176

Problems with Quantitative Rates178

Validity of Statistical Comparisons179

Risk Assessments180

Acceptance of Risk184

Risk Communication186

Bibliography187

Exercises187

CHAPTER 12 HAZARDS AND THEIR CONTROL189

Determining Existence of Hazards190

Eliminating and Controlling Hazards192

Isolation,Lockouts,Lockins,and Interlocks194

Failure Minimization200

Safety Factors and Margins200

Monitoring203

Warning Means and Devices206

Safe Procedures207

Backout and Recovery207

Damage Minimization and Containment211

Physical Isolation211

Weak Links212

Escape,Survival,and Rescue213

Bibliography214

Exercises214

CHAPTER 13 PLANNING FOR EMERGENCIES215

Medical Responses in Emergencies215

Bibliography228

Exercises228

CHAPTER 14 ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIONS229

Investigating Board Chairman's Responsibilities232

Contributing Personnel232

Conducting the Investigation234

Accident Reports235

Corrective Actions237

Insurance Claims237

Other Aspects of Accident Investigations239

Exercises239

CHAPTER 15 SAFETY ANALYSIS240

General240

Preliminary Hazards Analysis241

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis245

Fault-Tree Analysis(FTA)245

Fault Tree Symbols246

Safety Analysis Methods Mandated for Process Safety Management254

Bibliography257

Exercises258

CHAPTER 16 ACCELERATION,FALLS,FALLING OBJECTS,AND OTHER IMPACTS259

Falls259

Preventive Measures Against Falls262

Impacting Objects265

Other Acceleration Effects267

Bibliography270

Exercises270

CHAPTER 17 MECHANICAL INJURIES271

Cutting and Tearing271

Shearing272

Crushing272

Breaking273

Machine Guards and Safety Devices273

Guards274

Precautionary Measures276

Exercises277

CHAPTER 18 WORK-RELATED MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS279

Musculoskeletal Disorders(MSDs):Work Related or Not Work Related?280

The Effects of WMSDs281

Worker-related Factors Associated with MSDs282

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome283

Nonoccupational Factors of CTS283

Low Back Pain284

Back Belts286

Ergonomics:A Program to Control WMSDs287

Bibliography290

Exercises290

CHAPTER 19 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE291

Effects on Personnel291

Classification of Burn Severities296

Burns to the Eye297

Other Temperature Effects on Personnel297

High Temperatures298

Additional Effects305

Bibliography311

Exercises311

CHAPTER 20 PRESSURE HAZARDS312

Unfired Pressure Vessels314

Discharges from Safety Valves317

Dynamic Pressure Hazards317

Water Hammer319

Negative Pressure(Vacuums)320

Testing of Pressure Systems320

Leaks321

Effects of Leakage323

Leak Detection324

Dysbarism and Decompression Sickness324

Compressed-Gas Cylinders328

Bibliography336

Exercises340

CHAPTER 21 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS341

Shock341

Other Factors342

Causes of Shock344

Electrical Insulation Failures346

Equipment Failures347

Other Shock Protection349

Static Electricity354

Lightning359

Ignition of Combustible Materials361

Containment of Discharges361

Inherently Safe Devices361

Heating and Overheating365

Circuit and Equipment Protection366

Unit Protection367

Why an Open Circuit?368

Exercises374

CHAPTER 22 FIRES AND FIRE SUPPRESSION375

Fuels375

Oxidizers378

Gases379

Flammable and Combustible Liquids379

Flammable Solids386

Ignition387

Ignition Sources394

Ignition Delay394

Effects of Fire on Personnel396

Fire Detection Systems399

Fire Classifications400

Fire Suppression401

Extinguishing Systems408

Bibliography419

Exercises419

CHAPTER 23 EXPLOSIONS AND EXPLOSIVES425

Industrial Usage and Problems425

Materials That Will Explode429

Explosive Effects431

Preventing Explosion Damage434

Bibliography439

Exercises439

CHAPTER 24 HAZARDS OF TOXIC MATERIALS440

Toxic Materials440

Routes to Injury Sites441

Hypoxia441

Hypoxic Hypoxia445

Mechanisms of Toxic Agents448

Measurement of Toxicity458

Detection of Toxic Agents461

Respiratory Protective Equipment461

Bibliography475

Exercises476

CHAPTER 25 ENVIRONMENTS477

OSHA and EPA477

Types of Environments480

Natural and Induced Environments480

Controlled Environments484

Closed or Free Environments484

Hazards of the Environment486

Detecting Adverse Environments486

Protection against the Environment489

Industrial Ecology492

Bibliography495

Exercises496

CHAPTER 26 CONFINED-SPACE ENTRY497

What Is a Confined Space?498

Atmospheric Hazards500

Physical Hazards501

Chemical,Biological,Radiation501

Management Responsibilities for Confined Spaces501

Bibliography504

Exercises505

CHAPTER 27 RADIATION506

Ionizing Radiation508

Factors Affecting Exposure and Risk512

Sources of Ionizing Radiation512

Beneficial Uses of Ionizing Radiation515

Fears of Nuclear Radiation515

Ionizing/Nonionizing Interface519

Nonionizing Radiations519

Radio Frequency Radiation of Wireless Communication Devices527

Bibliography531

Exercises531

CHAPTER 28 VIBRATION AND NOISE532

Effects of Vibration,Sound,and Noise533

Mechanism of Hearing Injuries541

Elements of a Hearing Conservation Program(HCP)542

Annoyance547

Distraction547

Interference and Masking548

Other Vibration Effects548

Bibliography554

Exercises554

CHAPTER 29 COMPUTERS AND SAFETY557

Safety Uses of Computers558

Safety Problems to Workers559

Accidents with Computerized Equipment559

Computer Inabilities559

Programming Errors562

Avoiding Human Errors562

Safety Data Processing562

Avoiding Safety Problems563

Computer Controls against Hazards563

Computers and Hazard Analyses564

Simulations564

Software Hazard Categories565

Software Analysis565

Software Hazard Analysis Techniques567

Tailoring Software Analysis572

Robots and Accidents573

For the Future575

Bibliography575

Exercises575

BIBLIOGRAPHY577

INDEX583