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Introductiontent Courts and Court Reporting13

1 The PaCourt Structure14

1.1 The ivy Council14

1.1.1 Pre Common Law Courts17

1.1.2 The Equity Courts19

1.1.3 Thnt Actions in the Common Law Courts20

1.2 Patent Judgments and Verdicts in the Common Law Courts22

1.3 Patensuit23

1.3.1 Notion for a New Trial and a Writ of Error24

1.3.2 Mories in the Common Law Courts25

1.3.3 Ju1.4 Patent Actions and Judgments in the Courts of Equity30

1.5 Parliament33

1.6 Law Reports36

1.7 Summary44

2 Division Within the Judiciary: Were Some Judges 'Hostile' to Paten- tees?45

2.1 The Role of the Judge: Modern Insights48

2.1.1 The Formalism Approach48

2.1.2 The Creative Approach50

2.1.3 The Bounded Creativity Approach53

2.2 The Role of the Judge: Eighteenth Century Legal Treatises55

2.3 The Role of the Judge: The Eighteenth-Early Nineteenth Century Bench64

2.3.1 Internal Divisions: Divergent Backgrounds within the Community67

2.3.2 Internal Divisions: The Style of Interpretation72

2.3.3 Perrin v. Blake 1769-1772: The Internal Divisions Unmasked77

2.4 Analysing the Attitude of Judges in Patent Disputes82

2.5 Summary84

3 Patent Law: The Interpretation of the Statute of Monopolies 1624 from the 1750s to the 1830s87

3.1 The Importance of the Statute of Monopolies88

3.2 The Criteria for Statutory Interpretation92

3.3 The Judicial Interpretation of Section Ⅵ of the Statute of Monopolies 1624100

3.3.1 The 'True and First Inventor'101

3.3.1.1 The 'True and First Inventor' in Legal Treatises103

3.3.1.2 The 'True and First Inventor' in Case Law105

3.3.2 'New manufactures'109

3.3.2.1 'Manufacture' Defined in Legal Treatises110

3.3.2.2 'Manufacture' Defined in Cases114

3.3.2.3 'New'130

3.3.3 'Contrary to the Law, nor Mischievous to the State, by Raising Prices of Commodities at Home, or Hurt of Trade, or Generally Inconven-ient'140

3.3.3.1 Mechanisation143

3.3.3.2 Utility148

3.4 Summary151

4 Patent Law: The Interpretation of the Patent Specification from the 1750s to the 1830s155

4.1 The Introduction of the Patent Specification155

4.1.1 Why Did the Doctrine of Patent Specification Arise in the Early Eight-eenth Century?157

4.1.2 Who Was behind the Instigation of the Specification?158

4.2 The Interpretation of the Patent Specification by the Judges163

4.2.1 The Function of the Specification163

4.2.2 The Instruction of"the Public"173

4.2.3 The Requirement of Equal Benefit175

4.2.4 The Wording of the Specification176

4.2.4.1 The Patent Specification Read within the Context of a Monopoly Grant179

4.2.4.2 The Patent Specification Read within the Context of Protecting the Public against Monopolies for Fraudulent Patents180

4.2.4.3 The Patent Specification Read within the Context of the Contractual Approach184

4.2.4.4 The Diversity of Approach189

4.3 Understanding the Patent Specification195

4.3.1 Directing the Jury197

4.3.2 The Specification as a Text199

4.3.3 Examining the Technology200

5 The Patent Monopoly: Factors Affecting the Attitude of Judges to the Monopoly Grant for Patents for Invention207

5.1 The Patent as a Monopoly: The Negative Association207

5.1.1 The Monopoly as against the Common Law209

5.1.2 The Monopoly from the Economic Perspective219

5.1.3 The Monopoly as Contrary to Morality and Religion225

5.1.4 The Monopoly as Contrary to Natural Law230

5.2 The Status of the Inventor Patentee235

5.2.1 The Comparison with Authors235

5.2.2 The Public Good and Religious Doctrine238

5.2.3 Privilege or Right?243

5.3 Vested Interests244

5.4 Summary249

6 The Patent as a Form of Personal Property251

6.1 The Patent Specification as a Contractual Relationship252

6.2 The Organisation of the Law of Property at Common Law258

6.2.1 The Categories of Real Property and Personal Property at Common Law259

6.2.2 The Legal Consequences of the Distinction260

6.3 The Object of Property at Common Law261

6.3.1 Blackstone's Definition of the Object of Property262

6.3.2 Judicial Debates on the Object of Property264

6.4 The Patent as a Form of Personal Property272

6.4.1 The Patent and Copyright: Species of Common Law Property?273

6.4.2 The Relationship between the Subject Matter of a Patent and the Object of Property282

6.4.3 The Social Rise in Significance of Personal Property287

6.5 Summary291

7 From the Industrial Revolution to the Digital Revolution: The Soft-ware Challenge295

7.1 Developing a Legal Concept of Software296

7.2 The Present Patent Framework297

7.2.1 Software Patent Litigation298

7.2.2 The Role of the Judge299

7.3 Determining the Patentability of Process Inventions301

7.3.1 Interpreting the Term 'Manufacture'301

7.3.2 The Interpretation of a Computer Program 'as such'303

7.3.3 Comparing the Interpretation of'Manufacture' and a Computer Program 'as such'312

7.4 The Attitude to Monopolies314

7.5 Legal Uncertainty317

7.6 Summary320

8 Conclusion321

8.1 Factors Affecting Judicial Decision-Making in Patent Cases321

8.1.1 The Interpretational Style of Judges322

8.1.2 The Attitude of Judges to the Monopoly Granted by Patent326

8.1.3 The Attitude of Judges to the Patent as a Form of Property328

8.2 The Shift in Judicial Interpretation in the 1830s330

8.2.1 The Shift in Interpretation of the Statute of Monopolies 1624330

8.2.2 The Shift in the Interpretation of the Patent Specification333

8.2.3 The Causes of the Shift in the 1830s334

8.3 Concluding Remarks336

Appendix 1 The Statute of Monopolies 1624337

Appendix 2 The Chief Justices, Chief Barons and Lord Chancellors 1750s-1830s341

Bibliography343

Index357

Curriculum Vitae367