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PART ONE Intellectual Framework and the Cultural Background1

Foreign Policy and the International Environment3

1. There Are Many Policymakers6

2. Consensus versus Debate: Successive Periods of Policy6

3. Reconciling Foreign Policy Goals: The Priority of Security8

4. The Implications of Security's Preeminence8

5. The Role of National Interests10

6. Decision Making, Bureaucracies, and Rationality: Some Distinctions12

7. The Nature of the State System and Its Implications14

8. The Systems Effects of Policy Choices16

9. Qualifications to the Argument18

1O. Summing Up20

2 The Unique American Experience22

1. The Effects of Geographic Isolation22

2. The Effects of Historical Experience25

3. The Hundred Years' Peace (1815-1914)28

4. U.S. Policy (1815-1914)31

5. The Effects of the Domestic Environment: From Immigration33

6. The Effects of the Domestic Environment: On the American Political Process35

7. Summing Up37

3 The American Approach to Problems38

1. Attitudes About Government and Politics: Americans Know the Way39

2. Attitudes About Government and Politics: Idealism Should Be Practical41

3. Attitudes Toward the "Lessons of the Past"42

4. Effects of These Attitudes on Foreign Affairs42

5. The Conceptual Basis of the American Involvement in the Cold War45

6. The Three Postwar Formulas of U.S. Policy46

7. Applying the Containment Concept47

8. The Formulas Lead to Vietnam50

9. The Paucity of American Strategic Thought and Its Penalties52

10. Summing Up55

4 Phase 1: Designing Policy (The Cardinal Principles)57

1. The Policy Process58

2. The Cardinal Principles63

3. Past-Future Linkages63

4. Third-Party Influences67

5. Relating the First Two Cardinal Principles69

6. Counterbalancing National Interests70

7. The Conservation of Enemies72

8. Relating the Second Two Cardinal Principles and Linking Them to the First Two73

9. Summing Up75

5 Phase 2: Implementing Policy (The Operational Context)76

1. Identify Actors: Who Is Involved?76

2. Determine Objectives: What Do They Want? What Might We?78

3. Analyze Capability: What Is the Operational Power Relationship?82

4. Choose Orientation: What Involvement Is Necessary?85

5. Summing Up88

PART TWO How Washington Makes Foreign Policy91

6 The President and Congress93

1. Formal Factors: The President96

2. Formal Factors: The Congress99

3. The Growth of Congressional Assertiveness101

4. Congress and International Agreements102

5. Congress and Intelligence Operations103

6. Congress and Military Force105

7. Congress, Nuclear Nonproliferation, and Foreign Aid108

8. Summing Up109

7 Bureaucratic Politics111

1. The Role of Standard Operating Procedures112

2. Problems in Information Processing114

3. Fragmentation116

4. Bureaucratic Competition118

5. Characteristics of Bureaucratic Policymaking119

6. Higher-Level Decisions and Small Groups123

7. The President and the Bureaucratic Process125

8. Summing Up127

8 Public Opinion, Interest Groups, and Policymakers128

1. Five Characteristics of Public Opinion129

2. The Role of the Mass Media132

3. The Adequacy and Fairness Problem and Policymaker-Media Tensions133

4. The Influence of Public Opinion136

5. Interest Groups: The General Rule138

6. Interest Groups: Exceptions to the Rule?140

7. Summing Up143

9 The Departmnet of state145

1. Departmental Organization and Structure146

2. The Secretary of State146

3. The Second and Third Echelons149

4. The Bureaus and the Associated Agencies152

5. The Overseas Missions154

6. The Department in Operation157

7. Departmental Decision Making159

8. Summing Up161

10 The National Security System163

1. The National Security Act164

2. The Evolution of the Department of Defense166

3. The Intelligence Community168

4. The Cloak-and-Dagger Issue: Covert Operations173

5. National Security Decision Making and Presidential Styles175

6. American Policy, the Shah, and Khomeini: A Study in Confusion182

7. Summing Up185

PART THREE Design and Implementation: The American Policy Record187

11 Extending the Security Perimeter189

1. The First Century189

2. Toward a Larger Role192

3. A Watershed: The Spanish-American War195

4. World War I198

5. The Aborted Peace Settlement201

6. The 1920s and 1930s: Unilateralism203

7. The First Three Neutrality Acts208

8. Summing Up209

12 In Pursuit of a Global Role210

1. War Clouds Gather211

2. The Final Pre-World War ii Debates213

3. World War ii: Political versus Military Issues216

4. The Coming of the Cold War220

5. Extending the Containment Perimeter224

6. Summing Up227

13 Berlin, Cuba, and Vietnam229

1. The Berlin Crisis of 1958-1959230

2. The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962232

3. The Road to the Vietnam War Commitment235

4. The Sino-Soviet Split--Disregarded240

5. The Tonkin Gulf Resolution and Commitment241

6. Confusion at Three Levels243

7. Nixon--and (Eventually) War's End245

8. Summing Up248

14 Detente and Afterwards249

1. Nixon, Kissinger, and a New Approach249

2. Rapprochement with China250

3. Impact of the China Card on Soviet-American Relations251

4. The Advent of Detente253

5. Effects of D6tente on the Middle East254

6. The Carter Administration257

7. Evaluation259

8. Summing Up261

15 Postlude and Prelude263

1. What Parts One, Two, and Three Argue and Why263

2. American Style--Foreign Style267

3. Looking Ahead at Part Four270

PART FOUR Problems and Issues Facing the United States273

16 United States-Soviet Relations275

1. The Problem of U.S.-Soviet Relations276

2. Alternative American Strategic Concepts of Soviet Behavior277

3. A Soviet Perspective280

4. A Corrected View of Soviet Behavior283

5. Carter and Reagan Deal with the Soviets284

6. Key Issues in U.S.-Soviet Relations285

7. Summing Up289

17 Europe the Divided Continent291

1. Europe: Its Unity in Diversity292

2. Three Interlinked Problems294

3. Problem One: Europe's Arbitrary Division296

4. Problem Two: The Advanced Soviet Position and Its Political-Military Implications298

5. Problem Three: Lack of Uniformity of U.S.-European Interests299

6. Issues in United States-European Relations: Europe's Division305

7. Issues in United States-European Relations: The Soviet Threat308

8. Issues in United States-European Relations: Diversityof Interests310

9. Summing Up311

18 On Its Own A Stable Asia?312

1. The Strategic Problem: How to Ensure an Asian Security Balance312

2. The Chinese Relationship315

3. The Japanese Relationship317

4. The Indian and Pakistani Relationship318

5. Nixon-Kissinger-Ford: Designing a New Approach321

6. Nixon-Kissinger-Ford: Implementing a New Approach322

7. Carter and the Shift Toward a Lesser Presence325

8. The Reagan Administration and Beyond329

9. Summing Up332

19 Area in Ferment: The Middle East334

1. Five Interlinked Problems335

2. Background: The Arab-Israeli Wars of 1956 and 1967337

3. The Nixon-Ford Policy and Shuttle Diplomacy342

4. The Rise of the PLO and the Lebanon Connection345

5. Carter and the Camp David Accords346

6. The Oil Problem and the Stability Problem348

7. The Reagan Administration and Beyond351

8. Summing Up354

20 The Developing Nations: Africa and Latin America357

1. Three Interlinked Problems357

2. The Historical Legacy: Latin America362

3. The Historical Legacy: Africa364

4. African Affairs Under Nixon, Ford, and Carter366

5. Latin American Affairs Under Nixon, Ford, and Carter370

6. The Reagan Administration and Beyond374

7. Summing Up380

21 Mushrooming Technology and the Changing Global Environment382

1. The Technological Revolution383

2. The Quality of Life on Planet Earth386

3. Terrorism389

4. The Seas391

5. Space395

6. Summing Up398

PART FIVE Policy for the Time Ahead399

22 Conclusions and Evaluation401

1. The Theory Reviewed401

2. The Substantive Analysis Reviewed403

3. East-West and Security Concerns405

4. North-South and Economic Development Concerns410

5. Final Thoughts411

Index413