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Chapter 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAW1

Introduction1

Lawyers and Laymen1

What Is Environmental Law？2

Environmental Law and the Courts2

States and United States Court Systems3

Cases Which the United States Courts Can Decide3

United States Court System5

Courts in Practical Perspective6

Common Law6

Case Law8

Obiter Dicta8

Torts8

Nuisance9

Private or Public Nuisances9

Noise Nuisance11

Other Nuisances12

Some Defenses to Nuisance Actions14

Coming to a Nuisance15

Trespass16

Negligence18

Res Ipsa Loquitur19

Violation of a Statute or Ordinance20

Dangerous Substances - Strict Liability21

Defenses to an Action for Negligence22

Contributory Negligence22

Assumption of Risk22

Proving Negligence22

Sovereign Immunity and Torts23

Constitutional Law24

Constitution and Government Authority24

Limits on Governmental Action24

Search Warrants and the Fourth Amendment24

Prohibition Against Self-Incrimination:The Fifth Amendment27

Due Process， the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments27

Police Power and Due Process28

Prohibition Against Taking Property Without Compensation29

Commerce Clause Limitations31

Equal Protection of the Laws32

Constitutional Protection of the Environment33

Defenses35

Generally35

Laches36

Contractual Authorization37

Public Authorization37

Vagueness37

Unreasonableness and Impossibility of Performance38

Parties40

Standing， or Who May Sue40

Class Actions41

Evidence42

Burden of Proof42

Judicial Notice42

Presumptions43

Admissions43

Questions of Law and Fact43

Relevant and Material43

Res Inter Alios Acta43

Hearsay43

Opinion Evidence44

Best Evidence Rule44

Parol Evidence Rule44

Witnesses44

Privileged Communications45

Your Own Reports as Evidence Against You46

Samples or Physical Evidence46

Evidence Collection and Constitutional Rights46

Administrative Law47

Generally47

Powers of Governmental Agencies47

Procedures48

Evidence in Administrative Law48

Hearings49

Judicial Review49

Attorneys’ Fees - New Concepts51

Criminal and Civil Liability51

Chapter 2 NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT55

Introduction55

Overview56

Title Ⅰ: Policy and Goals56

Enforceability of Title I Policy and Goals56

The Environmental Impact Statement57

Title Ⅱ: Council on Environmental Quality57

How NEPA Relates to Other Federal Law58

Environmental Impact Statements62

Background: CEQ’s NEPA Regulations62

Proposed Actions Requiring an EIS64

Findings of No Significant Impact66

EIS Requirements for Special Types of Federal Action67

Procedure and Time of Required Issuance69

Who Can Prepare the EIS and the Lead Agency System70

Delegation70

The Lead Agency System71

Contents72

“International” Environmental Statements73

Applicants’ Environmental Reports74

The Seven Other “Action-Forcing” Provisions75

Who Can Sue for Alleged Violations of NEPA78

Chapter 3 WATER POLLUTION CONTROL81

Introduction - The Historical Perspective81

Water Quality Standards81

Effluent Criteria Under the Refuse Act82

The Need for New Authority82

The Clean Water Act82

The Federal-State Water Pollution Control Program Overview83

Goals and Objectives83

Mechanisms for Achieving Goals and Objectives83

Permitting Under The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System84

Program Scope and Applicability85

Permitting Procedures87

Permit Conditions90

Establishing the Limitations for Inclusion in the Permit —Technology and Water Quality-Based Limits93

Pollutants to be Addressed94

Required Level of Treatment--Technology-Based Limits for “Existing” Direct Discharges99

Required Level of Treatment--Technology-Based Limits for “New Source” Direct Discharges102

Required Level of Treatment—Technology-Based Limits for Indirect Dischargers （Pre-Treatment）104

Technology-Based Treatment Standards for Industrial Dischargers Dealing With Process Variability106

Technology-Based Treatment Standards--Publicly Owned Treatment Works109

More Stringent Treatment Required to Meet Water Quality-Related Effluent Limitations111

Controlling Non-Process-Related Waste Discharges115

Controlling Area-Wide Non-Point Source Pollution --Section 208 Planning116

Stormwater Discharges and Best Management Practices117

Oil and Hazardous Substances119

Oil119

Hazardous Substances121

Other Critical Elements of the Water Act Program122

Abatement Actions and Sanctions122

Citizen Suits125

Provisions Having Special Applicability126

Discharges to Ground Waters126

Dredged or Fill Material127

Ocean Discharge Criteria129

Thermal Discharges129

The EPA Construction Grants Program129

The Cost Recovery Program130

User Charges131

Cost Effectiveness and Eligibility134

Construction Grants--Summary135

Pollution Control Planning in the Current Regulatory Climate136

EPA Standards Development Programs136

Negotiation of Permit Conditions137

Discussions With Regional Office and State Officials138

State and Local Planning Activities138

Conclusion138

Annex A—Section 307—Toxic Pollutants140

Annex B142

Chapter 4 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL143

Introduction143

History144

Establishment of Air Quality Standards145

Air Quality Criteria145

National Ambient Air Quality Standards145

Air Quality Control Regions148

State Implementation Plans （SIP’s）148

Content of SIP148

Role of Technology and Economics152

Use of Dispersion Techniques153

Transportation Control Plans154

Maintenance of Ambient Air Quality Standards155

Indirect Source Review156

Variances157

New Source Review in Non-Attainment Areas158

Prevention of Significant Deterioration （PSD）160

Energy Related Authority164

Conversions to Coal164

Energy Emergency Provisions165

National Stationary Source Emission Standards165

New Source Performance Standards165

Hazardous Emission Standards167

Information Gathering Authority168

Enforcement Authority169

Compliance Orders and Noncompliance Penalties170

Emergency Authority171

Ozone Protection172

Motor Vehicle Emission Control172

Introduction172

Statutory Standards and Suspension173

Certification175

Compliance by Production Vehicles175

Assembly Line Testing176

Warranties176

Recall177

Vehicle Inspection177

Enforcement178

Fuel and Fuel Additive Provisions178

Registration178

Regulatory Authority179

Aircraft Emission Control181

Citizens Suits182

Judicial Review183

Acid Rain184

Chapter 5 RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY ACT187

Solid and Hazardous Wastes187

Solid Waste Disposal and Resource Recovery Act188

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976（RCRA）189

General Provisions190

Objectives of RCRA190

Def initions191

Guidelines192

Office of Solid Waste and Authorities193

Hazardous Waste Management193

Identification of Hazardous Wastes194

Hazardous Waste Lists196

Hazardous Waste Characteristics198

Ignitability198

Corrosivity198

Reactivity199

Extraction Procedure （EP） Toxicity199

Mixtures of Hazardous Wastes and Solid Wastes199

Used， Reused， Recycled or Reclaimed Hazardous Wastes200

Notification of Hazardous Waste Management Activities200

Generators of Hazardous Waste201

Small Generators201

Requirements Imposed Upon Generators202

Recordkeeping203

90-Day Storage Exemption204

Labels and Containers204

Transporters of Hazardous Wastes204

On-Site versus Off-Site205

Transporter Requirements205

Hazardous Waste Discharges206

Enforcement206

Treatment， Storage， and Disposal （T/S/D）207

Active/Inactive Facility208

Interim and Permitted Facilities208

Exempt T/S/D’s208

Standards of General Applicability210

Standards For Specific Types of T/S/D Facilities211

Standards for Special Types of T/S/D Facilities212

Permits212

State’s Hazardous Waste Programs213

Inspection and Enforcement214

State or Regional Solid Waste Plans215

Role of the Department of Commerce216

Federal Responsibilities216

Citizen Participation and Other Provisions216

Imminent and Substantial Endangerment Under RCRA216

Employee Protection and Other Provisions217

Research， Development， Demonstration， and Information217

Implementation of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act218

Enforcement of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act218

State and Local Activity219

Interstate Commerce and Solid Waste219

“Bottle Bills”220

Solid Waste Facility Siting220

Prospectus221

Chapter 6 TOXIC SUBSTANCES223

Introduction223

Problem of Unregulated Chemicals224

The Need for a Toxic Substances Control Act225

Legislative Background226

Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976227

Premanufacture Notification--Statutory Provisions227

Proposed PMN Regulations229

Interim PMN Policy230

Proposed Testing Guidelines Under Section 5231

PMN Exemption: Section 5（h）（4）231

Significant New Use Regulations （SNURs）232

Rejection of PMNs233

Inventory List: Section 8（b）235

Reporting Requirements239

Section 8（a）239

Proposed 8（a） Regulation， 1980239

Section 8（a） Final Regulations240

Reporting of Health and Safety Studies: Section 8（d）240

Reports of Health and Safety Studies243

Hazard Reporting Requirements244

Substantial Risk Notification: Section 8（e）244

Significant Adverse Reactions: Section 8（c）246

Testing Requirements247

General Testing Requirements: Section 4（a）247

Testing Reimbursement249

Priority List for Chemical Testing249

EPA’s Enforcement Role253

PCB and CFC255

Imminent Hazards: Section 7255

PCB Regulation256

Conf identiality260

Citizen Enforcement and Legal Fees262

Relationship of TSCA to Other Federal Laws263

Existing Toxic Substances Laws264

Clean Air Act264

Water Pollution Act265

Occupational Safety and Health dministration266

Consumer Product Safety Commission267

The Proposed Federal Cancer Policy267

Goals of Proposed Federal Cancer Policy267

Background of the Policy268

Scientific Principles of the Cancer Policy268

Implementation Regulations of the Cancer Policy269

Conclusion271

Chapter 7 FEDERAL REGULATION OF PESTICIDES273

Background to the Federal Regulation of Pesticides273

Early Efforts at Pesticide Regulations273

Creation of the Environmental Protection Agency275

Pesticide Statute276

Key Provisions of the Federal Insecticide， Fungicide and Rodenticide Act276

Registration Procedures277

Federal Control Over Pesticide Use278

Cancellation279

Suspension281

Ordinary Suspension281

Emergency Suspension283

Balancing Test in FIFRA284

Trade Secrets285

1972 Amendments to FIFRA287

Indemnities288

“Featherbedding” or “Me-Too” Registrants289

Essentiality in Registration292

Intrastate Registrations293

Scientific Advisory Committees294

Standing for Registration， Appeals， and Subpoenas295

Judicial Appeals297

Exports and Imports299

Disposal and Recall301

Experimental Use Permits302

1975 Amendments to FIFRA303

Need For FIFRA Renewal304

Controversy over USDA’s Veto of EPA304

Requirement of Consultation By EPA With USDA305

Scientific Advisory Committees306

Economic Impact On Agriculture Statement307

Self-Certification of Private Applicators308

1978 Amendments to FIFRA309

Conditional Registration309

Generic Pesticide Review310

Greater State Authority311

Compensation and Confidentiality311

Efficacy312

1980 Amendments to FIFRA312

Two-House Congressional Veto Over EPA Regulations312

Changes in the Function and Design of the Scientific Advisory Panel （SAP）313

Legal Cases313

Basic Cases314

Label Restrictions: Theory and Practice316

Administrator’s Flexibility318

Concerning The Scientific Advisory Committee318

Concerning The Administrative Law Judge319

National Environmental Policy Act320

Pesticide Regulation Under Other Federal Statutes321

Pesticides Under the Food， Drug & Cosmetics Act321

Clean Air Act of 1970323

Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972324

Solid Waste Disposal Acts325

Occupational Safety and Health Act325

Federal Hazardous Substances Act326

Federal Pesticide Monitoring Programs326

The RPAR Process327

Chapter 8 THE OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT331

Introduction331

Comparison of OSHA and EPA331

Legislative Framework332

Purpose of the Act332

Coverage of the Act333

Federal and State Employees334

Health Standards334

Slow Pace of Standards Development:The Noise Example335

Standard Setting336

Consensus Standards: Section 6（a）336

Standards Completion Process337

Permanent Standards， Section 6（b）337

Emergency Temporary Standards340

Safety Standards341

Areas Covered by the Standards342

Variances344

Temporary Variances344

Permanent Variances345

Compliance and Inspections345

Field Structure345

Role of Inspections345

Training and Competency of Inspectors345

Citations346

Willful Violations346

Repeat Violations347

State OSHA Program347

The Concept347

Critiques348

Consultation349

Overlapping Jurisdiction350

Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission351

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health352

Reprisals Against Worker Complaints: Section 11（c）353

Constitutional Challenges: Barlow Case355

Appendix A: Outline of Key Provisions of OSH Act of 1970357

Chapter 9 NOISE363

Introduction363

The Characteristics of Sound364

Biological Effects of Noise365

Physical Effects365

Physiological Effects367

OSHA Regulation of Noise368

The Present OSHA Standard369

Enforcement371

OSHA Noise Hearings371

Economic and Technical Feasibilility374

Hearing Protection Devices376

The Feasibility and Balancing Debate376

The Long-Anticipated OSHA Noise Standard379

Environmental Protection Agency Authority380

The Noise Act of 1970381

The Noise Control Act of 1972381

Noise Sources and Criteria383

Setting of Noise Emission Standards383

Federal， State and Local Jurisdiction Under Section 6385

Warranties387

Advertising Restrictions387

Labeling387

Development of Low-Noise-Emission Products388

Prohibitions and Penalties389

Control of Transportation Noise389

Aviation Noise390

Railroad and Motor Carrier Noise Standards392

EPA’s Coordination Role Within the Federal Government393

Quiet Communities Act of 1978394

Current Regulatory Actions on Noise395

Regulatory Activity Concerning Noise in the Aviation Industry395

Retrofit Of Existing Aircraft396

Airports and Aircraft Operating Procedures397

DOT’s Concorde Decision400

FAA Noise Certification403

Major Sources of Noise403

Air Compressors405

Trucks407

Power Mowers408

Garbage Truck Compactors409

Wheel and Crawler Tractors410

Buses410

Snowmobiles410

Motorcycles411

EPA Motor Carrier Regulations411

EPA Noise Standard For Railroads412

Chapter 10 COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE COMPENSATION AND LIABILITY ACT415

Overview415

“Super” Funds416

Key Purpose416

Agency Responsibilities416

Toxic Substances and Disease Registry417

Reportable Quantities418

Response and Clean Up Authority419

National Contingency Plan420

Revised National Contingency Plan421

National Contingency Plan Scope and Definitions421

Responsibilites Under The National Contingency Plan422

Response Teams422

National Response Center423

Regional Contingency Plan423

Oil Removal Under the National Contingency Plan423

Response Actions and Cleanup of Hazardous Substances424

National Priority List of Problem Sites424

Removal and Remedial Action Under the National Contingency Plan425

Cleanup Responsibilities Under the National Contingency Plan425

Liability426

Financial Responsibility428

Vessels428

Facilities429

Motor Carriers429

Claims and Penalties429

Hazardous Substances Response Fund429

Establishment of the Response Fund429

Fund Uses430

Procedures for Claims Against the Response Fund431

Post-Closure Liability Trust Fund432

Reports432

Regulatory Authority433

Judicial Review433

Relationship to Other Laws433

Assistant Administrator for Solid Waste435

Chapter 11 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING437

Introduction437

Reasons for Conducting an Environmental Audit439

Scope of the Environmental Audit443

Designing the Environmental Audit445

Audit Methodology445

Substance-by-Substance Analysis445

Unit Process Analysis446

Methods of Disposal447

Legal Requirements Checklist448

Analysis of Policy and Organization Issues449

Protecting the Confidentiality of the Audit450

Composition of Audit Team451

Conducting the Environmental Audit452

Data Collection452

Data Analysis454

Audit Report454

Conclusion455

Chapter 12 LAND USE: MAJOR ISSUES IN THE CONTROL OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT457

Introduction457

Background and Nature of the Problem458

Siting Problems460

Local Issues461

State Law Requirements462

State and Federal-State Planning464

Statewide Land Use Planning464

Land Use Planning for Specific Areas465

Planning for Achievement of Categorical Pollution Control Objectives466

Other Planning Requirements470

Specific Federal Authorizations470

Lead Agency Proceedings472

Federal-State Coordination472

“Third Party” Contracts473

Legislated Procedures473

Approach Under Existing Law473

Participate in the Land Use Planning Process474

Select Sites and Formulate Plans Based on a Detailed Understanding of the Siting Process474

Structure the Procedure and Climate in Which the Siting Decision Will Be Made475

File the Applications475

Make the Reviewing Agencies Do It Right475

Make Sure That Actual Construction Is in Accordance With Your Authorization and the Final EIS476

Prospects For Change: Specific Siting Legislation476

The Deepwater Port Example476

Time Limitation477

Single Coordinated Procedure477

One Environmental Impact Statement Based on Identified Criteria478

Problems With the Deepwater Port Act Approach479

Specific Legislation Begets Stringent Criteria479

“Time Limits” Can Be Illusory480

It Is Difficult to Enforce the “One Window” Concept480

The “One Environmental Impact Statement” Concept Failed480

The Future of the Deepwater Port Approach480

Conclusion481

Table 12-1 Decision Matrix482