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1 Introduction: linguistic forms and functions1.1 The functions of language1

1.1. 1 The transactional view1

1.1.2 The interactional view2

1.2 Spoken and written language4

1.2.1 Manner of production4

1.2.2 The representation of discourse: texts5

1.2.3 Written texts6

1.2.4 Spoken texts9

1.2.5 The relationship between speech and writing12

1.2.6 Differences in form between written and spoken language14

1.3 Sentence and utterance19

1.3.1 On ‘data’20

1.3.2 Rules versus regularities22

1.3.3 Product versus process23

1 .3.4 On ‘context’25

2 The role of context in interpretation27

2.1 Pragmatics and discourse context27

2. 1.1 Reference28

2.1.2 Presupposition28

2.1. 3 Implicatures31

2.1.4 Inference33

2.2 The context of situation35

2.2.1 Features of context36

2.2.2 Co-text46

2.3 The expanding context50

2.4 The principles of ‘local interpretation’ and of ‘analogy’58

3 Topic and the representation of discourse content68

3.1 Discourse fragments and the notion ‘topic’68

3.2 Sentential topic70

3.3 Discourse topic71

3.3.1 Topic framework73

3.3.2 Presupposition pools79

3.3.3 Sentential topic and the presupposition pool81

3.4 Relevance and speaking topically83

3.5 Speaker's topic87

3.6 Topic boundary markers94

3.6.1 Paragraphs95

3.6.2 Paratones100

3.7 Discourse topic and the representation of discourse content106

3.8 Problems with the proposition-based representation of discourse content114

3.9 Memory for text-content: story-grammars116

3.10 Representing text-content as a network121

4 ‘Staging’ and the representation of discourse struc-ture125

4.1 The linearisation problem125

4.2 Theme126

4.3 Thematisation and ‘staging’133

4.3.1 ‘Staging’134

4.3.2 ‘Theme’ as main character/topic entity134

4.3.3 Titles and thematisation139

4.3.4 Thematic structure140

4.3.5 Natural order and point of view144

4.3.6 Theme, thematisation and ‘staging’148

5 Information structure153

5.1 The structure of information153

5.1.1 Information structure and the notion‘given/new’ in intonation153

5.1.2 Halliday's account of information structure: information units154

5.1.3 Halliday's account of information structure: tone groups and tonics155

5.1.4 Identifying the tone group157

5.1.5 The tone group and the clause159

5.1.6 Pause-defined units160

5.1.7 The function of pitch prominence164

5.2 Information structure and syntactic form169

5.2.1 Given/new and syntactic form169

5.2.2 Information structure and sentence structure176

5.3 The psychological status of ‘givenness’179

5.3. 1 What does ‘given’ mean?179

5.3.2 A taxonomy of information status182

5.3.3 The information status taxonomy applied to data184

5.4 Conclusion188

6 The nature of reference in text and in discourse190

6.1 What is ‘text’?190

6.1.1 ‘Cohesion’191

6.1.2 Endophora199

6.1.3 Substitution201

6.2 Discourse reference204

6.2.1 Reference and discourse representations206

6.2.2 Referring expressions208

6.3 Pronouns in discourse214

6.3.1 Pronouns and antecedent nominals215

6.3.2 Pronouns and antecedent predicates216

6.3.3 Pronouns and ‘new'predicates218

6.3.4 Interpreting pronominal reference in discourse221

7 Coherence in the interpretation of discourse223

7.1 Coherence in discourse223

7.2 Computing communicative function226

7.3 Speech acts231

7.4 Using knowledge of the world233

7.5 Top-down and bottom-up processing234

7.6 Representing background knowledge236

7.6.1 Frames238

7.6.2 Scripts241

7.6.3 Scenarios245

7.6.4 Schemata247

7.6.5 Mental models250

7.7 Determining the inferences to be made256

7.8 Inferences as missing links257

7.9 Inferences as non-automatic connections260

7.10 Inferences as filling in gaps or discontinuities in interpreta-tion265

7.11 Conclusion270

References272

Subject index284

Author index286

文库索引289