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Section 1 CONCEPTS OF CRIME， LAW， AND CRIMINOLOGY1

1 Crime and Criminology2

Introduction3

What Is Criminology？5

Criminology and Criminal Justice5

Criminology and Deviance8

A Brief History of Criminology8

Classical Criminology9

Nineteenth-Century Positivism10

Positivist Criminology11

Cesare Lombroso and the Criminal Man11

The Development of Sociological Criminology11

Foundations of Sociological Criminology12

Emile Durkheim12

The Chicago School and Beyond13

Conflict Criminology13

Criminology Today13

What Criminologists Do: The Criminological Enterprise14

Criminal Statistics14

Sociology of Law14

Theory Construction16

Criminal Behavior Systems17

Penology17

Victimology17

How Do Criminologists View Crime？18

The Consensus View of Crime18

The Conflict View of Crime18

The Interactionist View of Crime19

Defining Crime20

Doing Criminology20

Survey Research20

Surveys in Practice21

Longitudinal Research21

Aggregate Data Research22

Experimental Research22

Observational Research22

Ethical Issues in Criminology22

2 The Criminal Law and Its Processes26

Introduction27

The Origin of Law27

The Dark Ages28

Origins of Common Law28

Crime and Custom28

The Norman Conquest29

The Common Law29

Common Law and Statutory Law29

Common Law in America31

Common Law in Other Cultures32

Classification of Law32

Crimes and Torts: Similarities32

Crimes and Torts: Differences32

Felony and Misdemeanor33

Mala in Se and Mala Prohibitum33

Functions of the Criminal Law36

Social Control36

Banishes Personal Retribution36

Expresses Public Opinion and Morality36

Deters Criminal Behavior37

Maintains the Social Order37

The Legal Definition of a Crime37

Actus Reus38

Mens Rea39

Criminal Defenses40

Ignorance or Mistake40

Insanity40

Intoxication42

Duress42

Necessity42

Self-Defense42

Entrapment43

Reforming the Criminal Law44

3 The Nature and Extent of Crime47

Introduction48

The Uniform Crime Report48

Critique of the Uniform Crime Report49

Self-Report Surveys51

Evaluating Self-Report Studies52

Are Self-Reports Valid？53

Victim Surveys53

The National Crime Victimization Survey53

Critique of the NCVS53

Are Crime Statistics Sources Compatible？54

Official Crime Trends in the United States55

Self-Report Trends56

Victim Data Trends57

Explaining Crime Trends57

What the Future Holds58

Crime Patterns59

The Ecology of Crime59

Use of Firearms59

Social Class and Crime60

Age and Crime66

Gender and Crime69

Race and Crime70

Criminal Careers72

Delinquency in a Birth Cohort73

Birth Cohort Ⅱ73

Chronic Offender Research74

Stability in Crime: From Delinquent to Criminal74

Criminal Career Development in Other Cultures74

Policy Implications of the Chronic Offender Concept75

4 Victims and Victimization81

Introduction82

Problems of Crime Victims: Loss82

Problems of Crime Victims: Suffering83

The Nature of Victimization84

The Social Ecology of Victimization84

The Victim’s Household85

Victim Characteristics86

Gender86

Age86

Social Status88

Marital Status88

Race89

The Victims and Their Criminals89

Intimate Violence90

Theories of Victimization90

Victim Precipitation Theory:Active and Passive91

Life-Style Theory93

Routine Activities Theory94

The Proximity Hypothesis96

Crime and Victimization97

Caring for the Victim98

The Government’s Response98

Victim Service Programs98

Victim Compensation98

Court Services99

Public Education99

Crisis Intervention99

Victim’s Rights99

Self-Protection100

Fighting Back101

Community Organization102

Section 2 THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION107

5 Choice Theories108

Introduction109

The Development of Classical Theory109

The Rise and Fall of Classical Tbeory109

Choice Theory Emerges110

Thinking about Crime111

The Concept of Rational Choice111

Offense and Offender Specifications113

Rational Choice and Routine Activities113

Suitable Targets113

Capable Guardians113

Motivated Criminals114

Is Crime Rational？114

Choosing Targets114

Can Violence Be Rational？115

The Situation of Crime115

Eliminating Crime116

Situational Crime Prevention116

Situational Crime Prevention: Strategies116

Situational Crime Prevention: Tactics117

Displacement， Extinction， Discouragement， and Diffusion118

General Deterrence119

Research on General Deterrence119

Objective Measures120

Experimental Research120

The Special Case of Capital Punishment122

Perceptual Research123

Panel Studies124

Informal Sanctions124

General Deterrence in Review125

Specific Deterrence126

Research on Specific Deterrence126

The Domestic Violence Studies126

Pain versus Shame127

Incapacitation128

Research on Incapacitation128

The Logic of Incarceration128

Selective Incapacitation: Three Strikes and You’re Out129

Policy Implications of Choice Theory129

Just Dessert130

6 Biosocial and Psychological Theories of Crime Causation137

Introduction138

Foundations of Biological Theory139

Impact of Sociobiology140

Biosocial Theory140

Learning Potential141

Biochemical Factors141

Chemical and Mineral Influences141

Hypoglycemia142

Hormonal Influences142

Allergies143

Environmental Contaminants144

Neurophysiological Studies144

Measuring Neurological Impairments145

Minimal Brain Dysfunction145

Attention Deficit Disorder145

Brain Chemistry147

Genetic Influences147

Twin Studies147

Adoption Studies148

Evaluating Genetic Research148

Evolutionary Factors149

Evaluation of the Biosocial Perspective149

Psychological Theories of Crime150

Theory of Imitation150

Psychodynamic Perspective150

Psycbodynamics of Abnormal Behavior152

Psycbodynamics of Criminal Behavior152

Behavioral Theories153

Social Learning Theory153

Cognitive Theory157

Moral and Intellectual Development Theory158

Information Processing158

Crime and Mental Illness159

Personality and Crime160

Research on Personality160

Intelligence and Crime161

Nature Theory162

Nurture Theory163

IQ and Criminality164

IQ and Crime Reconsidered164

Social Policy Implications165

7 Social Structure Theories173

Introduction174

Sociological Criminology174

Economic Structure175

Lower-Class Culture176

Racial Disparity177

The Underclass178

The Truly Disadvantaged178

Are the Poor “Undeserving”？179

Social Structure Theories179

Branches of Social Structure Theory180

Social Disorganization Theory181

The Work of Shaw and McKay181

Transitional Neighborhoods181

Concentric Zones182

The Legacy of Shaw and McKay182

The Social Ecology School183

Community Deterioration184

Employment Opportunities184

Community Fear184

Siege Mentality185

Population Turnover185

Community Change185

Poverty Concentration186

Weak Social Controls186

Strain Theories187

Anomie187

Theory of Anomie187

Social Adaptations188

Evaluation of Anomie Theory188

Institutional Anomie Theory189

Relative Deprivation Theory189

Is Relative Deprivation “Relative”？190

General Strain Theory191

Coping with Strain192

Strain and Criminal Careers192

Cultural Deviance Theory193

Conduct Norms193

Focal Concerns193

Theory of Delinquent Subcultures194

Middle-Class Measuring Rods194

The Formation of Deviant Subcultures194

Theory of Differential Opportunity195

Differential Opportunities195

Analysis of Differential Opportunity Theory196

The Gang Problem196

Evaluation of Social Structure Theories197

Social Structure Theory and Social Policy198

8 Social Process Theories205

Introduction206

Social Processes and Crime206

Family Relations206

Educational Experience207

Peer Relations207

Social Process Theories208

Social Learning Theory209

Differential Association Theory209

Principles of Differential Association209

Testing Differential Association211

The Future of Differential Association212

Differential Reinforcement Theory213

Analyzing Differential Reinforcement Theory213

Neutralization Theory214

Techniques of Neutralization214

Empirical Research215

Evaluation of Learning Theories215

Social Control Theories215

Self-Concept and Crime216

Containment Theory217

Social Control Theory217

Elements of the Social Bond217

Empirical Research218

Supporting Research218

Opposing Views219

Labeling Theory220

Crime and Labeling Theory221

Differential Enforcement222

Becoming Labeled222

Consequences of Labeling222

Primary and Secondary Deviance223

General Theory of Deviance224

Differential Social Control224

Research on Labeling Theory224

Criticisms of Labeling Theory225

An Evaluation of Social Process Theory226

Social Process Theory and Social Policy227

9 Social Conflict Theories235

Introduction236

Marxist Thought237

Productive Forces and Productive Relations237

Surplus Value238

Marx on Crime238

Developing a Conflict Theory of Crime239

The Contribution of Willem Bonger239

The Contribution of Ralf Dahrendorf240

The Contribution of George Vold240

Conflict Theory241

Conflict Criminology241

Power Relations242

The Social Reality of Crime242

Research on Conflict Theory243

Analysis of Conflict Theory244

Marxist Criminology244

The Development of Radical Criminology245

Fundamentals of Marxist Criminology246

Economic Structure and Surplus Value246

Instrumental Marxism247

Structural Marxism248

Research on Marxist Criminology249

Crime， the Individual， and the State249

Historical Analyses251

Critique of Marxist Criminology251

Left Realism253

Origins of Left Realism253

Radical Feminist Theory254

Marxist Feminism254

Radical Feminism254

Power-Control Theory255

Deconstructionism256

Peacemaking Criminology256

10 Integrated Theories: Multifactor， Latent Trait， and Life Course263

Introduction264

Integrated Theories264

Multifactor Theories264

Latent Trait Theories265

Life Course Theories266

Commonalities and Distinctions266

Multifactor Theories266

Social Development Theory266

Elliott’s Integrated Theory267

Integrated Structural Marxist Theory269

The Latent Trait Approach269

Crime and Human Nature270

Choosing Crime or Noncrime270

General Theory of Crime272

The Act and the Offender272

What Makes People Crime-Prone？272

Self-Control and Crime274

An Analysis of the General Theory of Crime274

Life Course Theories275

The Glueck Research275

Life Course Emerges276

Is There a Problem Behavior Syndrome？277

Pathways to Crime278

Theories of the Criminal Life Course278

Farrington’s Theory of Delinquent Development278

Nonoffenders and Desisters280

Theoretical Modeling281

Interactional Theory281

Laub and Sampson: Age-Graded Theory284

Turning Points and Social Capital285

Section 3 CRIME TYPOLOGIES291

11 Violent Crime292

Introduction293

The Roots of Violence293

Personal Traits294

Abusive Families295

Human Instinct295

Cultural Values296

Regional Values297

Substance Abuse297

Firearm Availability297

Violent Crimes298

Forcible Rape298

History of Rape298

Incidence of Rape299

Types of Rape300

The Cause of Rape301

Rape and the Law302

Murder and Homicide305

Degrees of Murder305

The Nature and Extent of Murder306

Murderous Relations306

Stranger Homicides307

Murder Transactions308

Types of Murderers308

Serial Murder309

Assault and Battery312

Nature of Assault312

Assault in the Home313

Sexual Abuse313

Causes of Child Abuse313

Spouse Abuse314

Robbery316

Robber Typologies317

Evolving Forms of Violence318

Hate Crimes318

The Roots of Hate318

Extent of Hate Crime319

Workplace Violence319

Political Violence320

Terrorism320

Forms of Terrorism321

Who Is the Terrorist？323

Responses to Terrorism323

12 Economic Crimes: Street Crimes331

Introduction332

A Brief History of Theft332

Modern Thieves333

Occasional Criminals333

Professional Criminals333

Sutherland’s Professional Criminal334

Professional Criminals: The Fence335

Occasional Criminals: The Nonprofessional Fence336

Theft Categories336

Larceny/Theft337

Larceny Today337

Shoplifting337

Bad Checks339

Credit Card Theft339

Auto Theft339

False Pretenses or Fraud341

Embezzlement342

Burglary342

The Extent of Burglary343

Careers in Burglary343

The Burglary “Career Ladder”344

Arson344

The Cause of Arson345

13 Organizational Criminality: White-Collar and Organized Crime350

Introduction351

Are Tbey Equivalent？ Comparable？ Similar？351

White-Collar Crime351

Redefining Wbite-Collar Crime352

The White-Collar Crime Problem352

International White-Collar Crime353

Components of White-Collar Crime353

Stings and Swindles354

Religious Swindles355

Chiseling355

Securities Fraud356

Individual Exploitation of Institutional Position357

Influence Peddling and Bribery357

Influence Peddling in Government358

Corruption in the Criminal Justice System359

Influence Peddling in Business359

Embezzlement and Employee Fraud360

Bhue-Collar Fraud360

Management Fraud360

Computer Crime361

Client Frauds365

Tax Evasion365

Corporate Crime367

Illegal Restraint of Trade and Price-Fixing367

False Claims and Advertising368

Environmental Crimes369

The Cause of White-Collar Crime370

Greedy or Needy？371

Corporate Culture Theory371

The Self-Control View372

Controlling White-Collar Crime373

White-Collar Law Enforcement Systems374

White-Collar Control Strategies: Compliance375

White-Collar Control Strategies: Deterrence376

Punishing White-Collar Criminals376

Organized Crime376

Characteristics of Organized Crime377

Activities of Organized Crime377

Organized Crime and Legitimate Enterprise378

The Concept of Organized Crime380

Alien Conspiracy Theory：La Cosa Nostra380

The Mafia Myth383

Organized Crime Groups383

Organized Crime Abroad384

Controlling Organized Crime384

The Future of Organized Crime386

14 Public Order Crime: Sex and Substance Abuse394

Introduction395

Law and Morality395

Debating Morality396

Criminal or Immoral？397

Moral Crusaders397

Illegal Sexuality398

Homosexuality398

Attitudes toward Homosexuality398

Homosexuality and the Law399

Paraphilias400

Prostitution400

Incidence of Prostitution402

Types of Prostitution403

Becoming a Prostitute405

Pimps405

Legalize Prostitution？406

Pornography406

The Dangers of Pornography407

Does Pornography Cause Violence？407

Pornography and the Law408

Controlling Sex for Profit409

Substance Abuse410

When Did Drug Use Begin？410

Alcohol and Its Prohibition411

Commonly Abused Drugs411

The Extent of Substance Abuse416

Are the Surveys Accurate？416

AIDS and Drug Use417

The Cause of Substance Abuse417

Types of Drug Users419

Drugs and Crime421

The Cycle of Addiction422

Drugs and the Law424

Alcohol Abuse424

Drug Control Strategies426

Legalization433

Glossary441

Subject Index459

Name Index473

Table of Cases484